Fluent Essays

Prior to beginning work on this assignment, review Chapters 7, 8, and 9 of the course textbook, read the following articles, What We Can Learn from Evaluating OD Interventions, The Benefits of Creating A Diverse Workforce (Links to an external site.), and What Are the Advantages of a Diverse Workforce? (Links to an external site.), and watch the video, How Can You Influence Others?. Last week, you prepared the foundation of your final project by selecting a case study and applying the appropriate action research process to the OD challenge. Based on your knowledge of intervention types, you proposed a recommended interaction for the challenge. This week, you will have the opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of individual, team, group, and organizational interventions, and what they look like during problem solving and decision-making. Intervention is the “doing” phase of action research. This paper will solidify your intervention selection. You will explain the actions used during your selected intervention and comprehensively apply the process to the case study. The paper must be at least two full pages in length, and must include the course textbook as a reference, as well as three additional scholarly and credible sources to support the content of the paper. In your paper, Select an appropriate intervention for your case study. Evaluate why the intervention is applicable to the case study. Interpret the actions involved when utilizing the intervention. The Intervention Selection and Application paper Must be at least two double-spaced pages in length (not including title and references pages) and formatted according to APA Style (Links to an external site.) as outlined in the Writing Center’s APA Formatting for Microsoft Word (Links to an external site.). Must include a separate title page with the following: Title of paper Student’s name University of Arizona Global Campus Course name and number Instructor’s name Date submitted Must utilize academic voice. See the Academic Voice (Links to an external site.) resource for additional guidance. Must include an introduction and conclusion paragraph. Your introduction paragraph needs to end with a clear thesis statement that indicates the purpose of your paper. For assistance on writing Introductions & Conclusions (Links to an external site.) as well as Writing a Thesis Statement (Links to an external site.), refer to the Writing Center resources. Must use at least three scholarly, peer-reviewed, or credible sources in addition to the course text. The Scholarly, Peer-Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.) table offers additional guidance on appropriate source types. If you have questions about whether a specific source is appropriate for this assignment, please contact your instructor. Your instructor has the final say about the appropriateness of a specific source for a particular assignment. To assist you in completing the research required for this assignment, view this University of Arizona Global Campus Library Quick ‘n’ Dirty (Links to an external site.) tutorial, which introduces the University Library and the research process, and provides some library search tips. Must document any information used from sources in APA Style as outlined in the Writing Center’s APA: Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.). Must include a separate references page that is formatted according to APA Style as outlined in the Writing Center. See the APA: Formatting Your References List (Links to an external site.) resource in the Writing Center for specifications. Carefully review the Grading Rubric (Links to an external site.) for the criteria that will be used to evaluate your assignment. Individual Interventions 7 Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • Describe learning and development interventions, including reflective practice; T-groups; training, education, and development; and action learning. • Identify when management and leadership development is indicated and discuss values clarifi- cation and coaching interventions. • Distinguish three types of assessments and explain why it is essential that they be adminis- tered by certified professionals, effectively debriefed, and used ethically. • Discuss various ways individual careers can be supported through performance management, career plan development, assessments, and developmental relationships. • Explain how jobs can be better developed with the use of job design, job descriptions, and policy development. fizkes/iStock/Getty Images Plus © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Lindsey was laid off from her job in a financial institution during an economic downturn. Although it was difficult for her to be without an income, she had not liked her work; she was often unfulfilled and unchallenged. The layoff gave her an opportunity to think hard about what she wanted to do next. She had no dependents, little debt, and enough savings to cover the tran- sition, so she had some flexibility in her next steps. To begin exploring her options, Lindsey made an appointment with a consultant, Jennifer, who spe- cialized in career counseling. Prior to their first meeting, the consultant gave her a couple of assess- ments to identify her personality preferences and key interests. During their first meeting, Jennifer shared the results of the assessments and asked Lindsey several challenging questions, such as “Where do you want to be in 5 years?” What excites you?” and “What is your biggest challenge?” They also worked on a values clarification exercise to identify Lindsey’s key values. After each counseling session, Lindsey was given homework that prompted her to explore what opportunities might interest her. After much soul searching, Lindsey decided to return to school for an accelerated master’s degree in instructional design; this would merge her inter- ests in technology and education. Upon graduation, she was hired by a consumer products company to develop learning and development programs. When Lindsey started her new position, she under- went an intensive training program that included an orientation and an introduction to the organization’s training and technology platforms. Her direct supervisor worked with her to develop a career plan within the company. Lindsey joined a national professional organization that had a regional chapter in her metropolitan area. She began attending meetings and devel- oped relationships with several of her peers and seniors in her field. She struck up a conversation with the keynote speaker, Jo, at one of the events. Jo was a vice president of learning and develop- ment at a technology company. They continued corresponding after the meeting and developed an informal mentoring relationship. Jo became a mentor to Lindsey, and she was a good sounding board not only for some of the technical problems she encountered, but also for political issues. Jo recommended books, confer- ences, and other people from whom to seek advice about issues and opportunities. Jo also helped Lindsey make decisions about which opportunities and positions to pursue within her company. Lindsey received high marks during her performance evaluations and continued to evolve her career plan. Eventually, Jo recommended Lindsey to another company, which recruited and hired her into a managerial position. Wavebreakmedia/Thinkstock Lindsey attends a training session for her new position. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. This book has focused on accomplishing OD using the action research model. It has moved through the three action research phases of planning, doing, and evaluating. This chapter is devoted to profiling several interventions that might be appropriate at the individual level of analysis. For the purposes of this chapter, it is assumed you have followed the action research process up to the point of intervention and carefully selected an intervention in collaboration with the client. Interventions are generally decided during the discovery or planning that occurs in Phase 1 of the action research model. They are implemented in Phase 2, doing or action, and assessed in Phase 3, checking or evaluating. Chapter 5 defined OD interventions as the actions taken on the problem or issue that is the focus of the OD process. Intervention is the culmination of the OD process—it is what OD intends to do from the start. The interventions covered in this chapter are not comprehensive, but rather representative of the many options available. We could include dozens, as the range and potential of OD inter- ventions are nearly endless. Rather than get lost in a sea of interventions, we will present the most common individual interventions with descriptions of their definition, why consultants use them, and how to implement them. The three intervention chapters in this book have organized interventions according to the levels of individual, group or team, and organization. Although these interventions have been categorized by level for ease of understanding their scope, some interventions, such as leader- ship development interventions, may fall under more than one category. A leadership devel- opment program similar to the one described in the Leadership Academy vignette crosses all three of these levels, because potential leaders receive individual development that affects their interactions with groups and the whole organization. Another example of interventions that cross all levels would be the implementation of a per- formance management system. Individual development and change is usually affected when performance is appraised, and this in turn affects other people, groups, and the organization itself. See Table 7.1 for examples of interventions according to level of analysis. Table 7.1: Levels of OD interventions Individual-level interventions Group-level interventions Organization-level interventions • Learning and development • Leadership or management development • Career development • Assessment • Job development • Group or team process and development • Diversity and inclusion • Conflict management • Problem solving and decision making • Vision and mission development • Strategic planning • Organization design • Culture • Talent management • Large-scale interactive events (LSIEs) The purpose of this chapter is to profile selected interventions according to the individual level. Individual interventions usually accomplish one or more of the following: learning and development, leadership and management development, assessment, career development, and job development (see Table 7.2). © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.1Learning and Development Table 7.2: Categories of individual OD intervention Category Intervention Learning and development • Reflective practice • Laboratory training (T-group) • Training, education, and development • Action learning Leadership or management development • Values clarification and integration • Coaching Assessment • Values clarification and integration • Coaching Career development • Performance management • Career plan development • Assessments • Developmental relationships Job development • Job design • Job descriptions • Responsibility charting • Policies 7.1 Learning and Development Learning and development interventions ensure organization members have the knowl- edge, skills, and abilities needed to do their jobs effectively and help the organization per- form optimally. These activities affirm not only that employees are fully trained but also that they remain engaged in ongoing learning, which helps create and sustain the organization’s culture, enables the organization to remain competitive, and promotes employee retention. As we have already discussed, learning and change are intricately related, and this category of interventions helps employees implement change. Learning and development interven- tions also help new knowledge be shared throughout the organization. Key interventions in this area include reflective practice; laboratory training, or T-groups; training, education, and development activities; and action learning. Reflective Practice When was the last time you stopped and gave thoughtful consideration to a decision, experi- ence, or idea? Or had a deep, engaging, and thoughtful conversation with another person? When you engage in these pauses to contemplate, you are engaging in reflective practice. What Is Reflective Practice? Whenever you think critically about your experiences and actions, you are engaged in reflec- tive practice. Donald Schön introduced reflective practice in his books The Reflective Practi- tioner (1983) and Educating the Reflective Practitioner (1987). Schön distinguished two types of reflective practice according to when they occur. Lindsey, who lost her job in the vignette, engaged in reflective practice with her career counselor, who asked her to think about what she wanted in the next chapter of her life. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.1Learning and Development • Suppose Sarah facilitates a meeting. During the meeting, she might think, “I need to be more pragmatic about keeping everyone focused and on point,” “I didn’t manage the disagreement between team members about the best solution to the problem,” or “Maybe if I restate the issue, we can solve this problem.” These musings about an experience while it is happening are reflection in action. That is, Sarah assesses an experience, her thoughts about the experience, actions she has taken, or actions she might take, in the moment. Perhaps as a result, she adjusts her actions in the moment. • Once the meeting is finished and Sarah thinks about what happened and imagines how she could have handled things better or what she will do next time, she is engaging in what Schön (1983) called reflection on action. Sarah is using what she learned from the experience to shape future thoughts and actions. Why Do OD Consultants Encourage Reflective Practice? When OD consultants ask an organization member to change, they are putting that person into a learning situation. A learner’s ability to critically reflect on and in action signals their adeptness at learning. Reflec- tive practice is one of the hallmarks of adult learning (Brookfield, 1987; Merriam & Bier- ema, 2014) and helps individuals adopt change more effectively and permanently. In the opening vignette, Lindsey engaged in reflective practice activities under the guidance of her career counselor. This helped her assess her situation, interests, and opportunities. Unfortunately, time to reflect is largely lacking in the contempo- rary workplace, because organizations tend to be focused on action at its expense. Your clients may have a difficult time slowing down to reflect; they may feel it is a waste of time. On the contrary, reflection can help clients accept change and be more mindful as they implement it. The more consultants can help their clients think critically, avoid error, and learn from experience, the more effective the intervention. How Is Reflective Practice Done? Brookfield (1987) pointed out how critical reflection is used in strategic planning, effective decision making, creative problem solving, situational leadership, entrepreneurial risk taking, Consider This Think about instances when you engaged in reflection in action and reflection on action. How has taking a reflective pause helped you learn and engage with your colleagues? JGalione/E+/Getty Images Plus Reflection helps us learn from our experiences. How would you encourage reflective practice as an OD consultant? © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.1Learning and Development research and development activities, and organizational team building. OD consultants who foster reflective practice in their clients on these and other organizational processes will more effectively help them understand the assumptions that underlie their own thoughts and actions. A key way to get clients to reflect is to help them recognize contradictions between thought and action. For example, a manager may claim to treat all employees fairly but show favorit- ism toward certain people. This behavior is what Argyris and Schön (1974) called espoused theory versus theory in use. The familiar adage “Do as I say, not as I do” aptly captures these kinds of inconsistencies, which are usually rampant in organizations. Helping clients recog- nize these discrepancies is the first step toward helping them make their behavior more con- sistent with their espoused values. See Assessment: The Left-Hand Column Exercise to examine contradictions between what people say and what they do. OD consultants might ask an individual to reflect on the impending change, a career move, or feedback; they might also build in structured reflection time when planning for other inter- ventions such as training. Consultants can send clients on an individual retreat with reflection assignments. Reflection is also a key component of coaching and T-groups. Assessment: The Left-Hand Column Exercise Organization theorists Chris Argyris and Donald Schön (1974) developed the left-hand col- umn (LHC) exercise as part of their work in action science (a process of action research that generates useful information about practical problems in organizations, usually by examining contradictions between what people say and what they actually do). Steps to creating an LHC include the following: 1. Pick an important conversation you have recently had. 2. Use the following worksheet to document the conversation. 3. Write down the actual words you and your conversant used in the right-hand column. 4. Write down what you were actually thinking and feeling during the conversation as the words were being said. 5. Compare both columns. 6. What differences, if any, exist between what you said and what you thought? a. If there were discrepancies, how can you begin to productively raise some of your left-hand column thoughts? b. How can you prompt your conversant to be more forthright about some of their left-hand column thoughts? LEFT: What I really thought RIGHT: What was really said I was hoping he wouldn’t notice we were late. YOUR BOSS: Let’s meet this week. We are behind with the budget and we need to get these items finalized. Jim, I’d like to come down there next week. We’re a few weeks behind, and I think we might all benefit from a meeting at your office. (continued on next page) © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.1Learning and Development Laboratory Training and T-Groups Laboratory training, or T-groups, provides opportunities for individuals to reflect on their own behavior and how it affects the group. What Are Laboratory Training and T-Groups? We introduced T-groups in Chapter 1. Also known as laboratory training or training groups, T-groups are small groups of organization members that provide in-depth feedback to one another about perceptions and how individual behaviors affect the group. Recall that T-groups stimulated the creation of OD and grew in popularity through the 1960s and 1970s. They are less popular today because of the risk of being unable to maintain amicable work relationships after significant self-disclosure and sharing. Also, their results can be difficult to transfer back to the work context. Frank disclosure may also put employees at risk with their Assessment: The Left-Hand Column Exercise (continued) LEFT: What I really thought RIGHT: What was really said I need to make it clear that I’m willing to take responsibility for this, but some of this is out of my control. ME: Yes, the deadlines are of concern. As you know, some of the estimates we need to com- plete the budget have not come in on a timely basis, although we are working as hard as we can to get them. When do you want to meet? He always seems to offer help after the crisis has already occurred, not when I really need it. Now, it is too late to do anything but wait. YOUR BOSS: It seems to me that we could have better communication and coordination between the two of us as we establish the bud- get. I might be able to help. The changes he keeps making to the renovation plans are the real reason we’re late. Getting estimates takes time. ME: I’m always open to better ways to build the mousetrap. YOUR BOSS: I hope you have some better ideas about what we can do here. I wish I could just level with him that he’s the reason we are delayed. If we can just get him to hold off a bit longer, we should be able to get the estimates. ME: If we can push off our meeting until next week, I think we can have the budget by then and also brainstorm improved processes. Your Turn . . . Visit your e-book to download an interactive version of this assessment. LEFT: What I really thought RIGHT: What was really said © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.1Learning and Development organizations if management were to retaliate. Refer back to Chapter 1 for a full description of T-groups. Why Do OD Consultants Do Laboratory Training and T-Groups? T-groups are beneficial interventions because they provide fodder for reflective practice, as discussed in the previous section. Specifically, they help group members reflect on their interpersonal interactions and thereby deepen their self-awareness. Often, individuals fail to consider where their assumptions come from or how their behaviors and comments affect others. T-groups provide a platform for reflection and disclosure that leads to deeper levels of consciousness. How Are Laboratory Training and T-Groups Done? A T-group is rather fluid, usually lacking an explicit agenda beyond enhanced awareness and understanding. The goals of a T-group include increasing members’ self-awareness and improving their understanding of how their individual interactions affect the group. T-groups usually yield useful insights about oneself, others, and the group. T-groups may use the con- versation to solve problems, share feedback, or role-play. T-groups require eight to 15 participants. The consultant’s role is to guide the group and encourage participants to share emotional reactions (e.g., anger, fear, warmth, or envy) to the other participants’ actions and statements. The group should focus on sharing emotions rather than making judgments or drawing conclusions. The T-group helps participants see how their words and actions trigger emotional responses in the other individuals and ideally makes participants more mindful of how they behave in group settings. T-groups can be uncomfortable for members because significant self-disclosure and open- ness are required. Moreover, participants’ feelings may be hurt because of the feedback’s highly personal nature. Experienced facilitators help mitigate these risky dynamics. Training, Education, and Development A key individual intervention is to ensure that employees have the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes to effectively do their jobs. Training, education, and development make that possible. What Are Training, Education, and Development? Training, education, and development are appropriate interventions when new skills, knowl- edge, or attitudes are needed in areas such as new technology implementation, diversity and inclusion initiatives, machine operation, product safety, and new employee orientation. In the opening vignette, Lindsey pursued all three of these. In this text, these three interventions will be referred to as training. You will recall that Lindsey elected to pursue higher education training and then received further training when she joined her new company. Davis and Davis (1998) offered a comprehensive definition of training. Among their key points are the following: © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.1Learning and Development • Training is always a process, rather than a program to be completed. • Training develops skills, shares information, and nurtures attitudes. • Training helps the organization. • Training usually contributes to workers’ overall development. • Training helps workers qualify for a job, do the job, or advance to a new job. • Training is essential for enhancing and transforming a job. • Training facilitates learning. • Learning is not only a formal activity; it is also a universal activity, and many types of people facilitate it formally and informally. • Training should always hold forth the promise of maximizing learning. Why Do OD Consultants Do Training, Education, and Development? It is easy to associate OD interventions exclusively with training programs, but not all OD problems require a training solution. When training programs are required, it is important that they be well designed and facilitated in ways that meet the intended goals. Training is most effective when it is explicitly linked to organizational strategy and when it targets a problem that can be resolved by training. Thus, training may be used to improve current employee job performance, such as by teaching employees new skills, software, or processes that help them do their jobs with more speed and accuracy. Or it may be a means of orienting new employees to the policies and expectations of the company. In the opening vignette, Lind- sey went through extensive orientation training. Training may also be used to prepare employ- ees for advancement. For instance, leadership training may be offered to develop manage- ment potential, or tuition reimbursement programs may be provided to help employees build technical and administrative skills. See Tips and Wisdom: Resources on Training. How Are Training, Education, and Development Done? Training, education, and development are achieved through formal knowledge-building efforts (McLean, 2006; Nadler, 1970): • OD consultants provide or arrange for training via on-site demonstrations, classes, courses, and programs that help employees accrue job-related knowledge. For example, you may have attended computer class or conflict resolution training. New technical and interpersonal skills help you do your job more effectively. Consultants get asked to provide training most often, as it is often selected as an intervention. Tips and Wisdom: Resources on Training As well as promoting both professional and personal growth, training helps the organization enhance its performance. To learn more about training, see Caffarella and Daffron’s (2013) Planning Programs for Adult Learners: A Practical Guide, Lawson’s (2016) The Trainer’s Hand- book, or Silberman and Biech’s (2015) Active Training: A Handbook of Techniques, Designs, Case Examples, and Tips. You can access multiple training resources by joining the Association for Talent Development (ATD) at the following website: https://www.td.org/. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.1Learning and Development • When you learn how to become an analytic problem solver and use reasoning, you are receiving education. Education is not necessarily job related. Learning how to critique classic texts, for example, may not be specific to your job in health care or manufacturing, but it may be helpful in carrying out your job because it sharpens your reasoning and writing skills. Consultants do less work in this area, although they may refer clients to higher education programs or offer programs in their own area of expertise. For example, if a consultant were an expert writer, she might help the client’s employees develop in this area. • When you cultivate your interests, perhaps by taking martial arts or a cooking course, you are engaged in development. Development is sometimes considered more personal and less job related, but like education, it enhances your ability to do your job and makes you more well rounded. Consultants might recommend develop- ment programs as part of an intervention, especially ones that are focused on organization learning and employee satisfaction. Action Learning Action learning arose in the 1990s as a reaction to formal learning interventions (such as training) that were viewed as ineffective because of the difficulty of transferring knowledge back to the workplace and their lack of relevance or support to use the new learning. What Is Action Learning? Action learning deliberately accelerates people’s education about real work problems and/or desired outcomes within the actual work context. It is a continuous cycle of learning by doing, followed by reflecting on the doing. Action learning involves getting relevant people together to work on organizational issues in a fashion that leads to learning throughout the process. For example, suppose a new product is launched and a group of relevant stakeholders comes together to ask questions raised by the launch, reflect on problems and solutions that arise in the launch, share assumptions about the project, make necessary changes, reflect on how the changes worked, and consider the learning that transpired in the launch process. Action learning creates a structure for reflective practice among individuals or groups. Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Action Learning? Consultants favor action learning because, rather than taking people to an unnatural location to teach them unnatural acts about abstract concepts (as training often does), it involves the real people working with the real problem in its real setting. In other words, action learning involves getting people who have a particular problem together in the workplace to undergo cycles of learning and action. This makes the process relevant, timely, and completed by the people who own the problem. Consider This Identify the types of training, education, and development you have experienced. How have they differed? What did you take away from each of these activities? © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.2Leadership and Management Development Lawrence (1991) observed that action learning not only is learning by doing, but also involves reflection with the explicit goal of learning from experience. According to Lawrence, there are three essential characteristics of action learning: 1. Real work: Suppose a certain scheduling process creates problems for multiple workers—there is too much overlap at times and not enough coverage at others. 2. Questioning process: The team gets together and begins to question how the sched- ule is being made; the team members suggest changes. 3. Implementation: New scheduling procedures are put in place, and the group recon- venes to evaluate how the changes are working and what was learned. Lawrence (1991) recognized that action learning has the following outcomes: visible progress on solving problems, individual development, and change. Unlike some process-improvement tools, action learning is open ended, dynamic, and fluid. Although the purpose of engaging in action learning may be clear, the results are often unexpected. Action learning helps partici- pants understand their internal decision and action processes and makes them aware of how these patterns affect their environment. How Is Action Learning Done? Action learning is accomplished by six to eight people who come together to work on a prob- lem. This group is known as an action learning set. There are several variations on steps taken, but generally the process is as follows: 1. Establish an action learning set. 2. Identify a project, task, or problem the set intends to work on. 3. Engage in a process of questioning, reflection, and inquiry into the problem. 4. Decide on and implement a course of action. 5. Reconvene to evaluate whether the action resulted in a satisfactory outcome and to identify key learning. Action learning tends to favor asking questions that prompt new thinking, learning, and solu- tions. For more information on action learning, see Marquardt, Banks, Cauweiler, and Choon (2018) or Revans (2017). 7.2 Leadership and Management Development Learning and development interventions are common across all levels of the organization. They affect not only individuals, but also teams and the organization itself. A more specialized type of development is targeted at current and potential leaders and managers of the organi- zation and is … Group Interventions 8 Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • Identify interventions that OD consultants use to build highly functioning groups and teams. • Identify situations in which diversity and inclusion interventions are warranted and describe various interventions. • Recognize when individuals or teams are in conflict and discuss different interventions for resolving the conflict. • Explain how problem solving and decision making are handled in organizations. Gradyreese/E+/Getty Images Plus © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. AutoMark, an automotive parts maker, needed to radically change the sound system it had pro- duced for years. Fast-changing technology and computer advances had made even relatively new vehicular sound systems obsolete. Producing a new sound system posed a host of chal- lenges: designing the component, ensuring compatibility with other components and systems in the vehicle, and communicating across several functional areas, including design, manufactur- ing, engineering, and the union. AutoMark’s general manager, David, was new and had inherited a business with a long history of botching new system launches: They were chronically late, over budget, and under quality specifications. David had recently been exposed to OD in his evening MBA courses and was anxious to see if he could change AutoMark’s track record with the new sound system rollout. David contacted the company’s internal OD person, Anne, to see what could be done about the anticipated sound system launch. After completing the action research steps to discover the problems, they determined that the team involved had to be more cross-functional and that the team members lacked the requisite skills to pull off a successful launch. They decided to put a new team in charge of the launch. The new team was composed of representa- tives from design, manufacturing, engineer- ing, and the union. The team’s first meeting consisted of a charge to alter the way Auto- Mark handled new system launches. The team members established roles, ground rules, and a clear purpose statement for their work. They agreed it would be beneficial to build the team’s skills, and so, with Anne’s help, they planned a retreat to set themselves up for success. The retreat was held the following month at an off-site location. Everyone on the team had taken a DiSC assessment (see Chapter 7); those results were shared with the team so individuals could begin to appreciate their differences and communicate effectively with each other. The team members engaged in activities to help build cohesion and understanding. They learned new skills for managing difficult conversations and for listening during disagree- ments. They also learned a new problem-solving model and reviewed quality standards to make sure these issues were consistently considered in their process. Finally, they revisited their origi- nal purpose, ground rules, and roles to see if these needed to be altered based on their work over the past month. The retreat was a success, and the group dove into its work. The group was highly functioning, based on its upfront investment to establish a functional, collaborative team. During the first few meetings, there were some moments of confusion; people were not sure of the key goal, and at times roles and responsibilities were not clear. But the group was able to resolve each of these issues. So far, the team was ahead of schedule on making decisions and getting approvals on the new sound system’s design. As the launch date got closer, the team members were under increasing stress, and some began to experience conflict. Meetings were getting bogged down by Ammit/iStock/Thinkstock On its retreat, AutoMark engaged in activities that built teamwork and communication. What kinds of activities would you recommend for encouraging team cohesion? © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. disagreements; people argued over decisions, and some resorted to personal attacks. Two mem- bers in particular did not like each other and usually stirred things up for the rest of the team. David became increasingly concerned that the disagreements were sapping too much time and energy from the team. He decided to intervene and called the two instigators into a meeting, where he could mediate the dispute. Anne facilitated the conversation, because she was a neu- tral party. The two team members aired their grievances and were eventually able to identify common ground and problem solve their issues. The team went on to complete its work after the midpoint intervention. Using a deliberate team process helped the team turn the launch process around with an on-time, under-budget, and superior-quality product. This book has focused on undertaking OD using the action research model. We have moved through the three action research phases of planning, doing, and evaluating. This chapter is devoted to profiling several doing interventions that might be appropriate at the group or team levels of analysis and assumes you have followed the action research process up to the point of intervention and carefully selected an intervention in collaboration with the client (see Table 5.1). Interventions are generally decided during the discovery or planning that occurs in Phase 1 of the action research model. They are implemented in Phase 2, doing or action, and assessed in Phase 3, checking or evaluating. Chapter 5 defined OD interventions as the actions taken on the problem or issue that is the focus of the OD process. Intervention is the culmination of the OD process—it is what OD intends to do from the start. The interventions covered in this chapter are not comprehensive, but rather representative of the many options available. This book could include dozens, as the range and potential of OD interventions are nearly endless. Rather than get lost in a sea of interventions, this chapter presents some of the most common group and team interventions (see Table 7.2). Human interactions tend to be messy and unpredictable, and groups have fascinating dynam- ics as they negotiate roles, differences, work practices, power relations, and tasks. OD con- sultants commonly address the challenges that arise in groups with interventions to improve group or team processes and development, increase diversity and inclusion, manage conflict, and solve problems and make decisions. The interventions within each of these categories are summarized in Table 8.1 and are profiled in this section. Table 8.1: Categories of group or team OD intervention Group or team process and development Diversity and inclusion Conflict management Problem solving and decision making • Dialogue • Team life cycle • Team start-up or transition • Team building • Team learning • Virtual teams • Cultural awareness • Cross-cultural development • Conflict resolution • Confrontation meetings • Third-party intervention • Appreciative inquiry • Work-Out • Total quality management (TQM) • Quality of work life (QWL) • Problem-solving models © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development 8.1 Group or Team Process and Development Although the terms group and team are often used interchangeably, they have different defini- tions. Suppose a group of people gets on an elevator. A team emerges in the event the elevator gets stuck. A group usually consists of three or more people who may share common percep- tions, motivations, goals, or organization membership. In the case of the elevator, the group shares the common goal of traveling to a different floor. When the elevator becomes stuck, the group is suddenly transformed into a team. These team members not only share a common goal (getting out of the elevator) but must work together to achieve it. The difference is subtle but important for understanding group dynamics. Table 8.2 contrasts groups and teams. Table 8.2: Contrasting groups and teams Groups Teams  1. Compete against each other  2. Seek personal agendas  3. Are staid and stodgy  4. Make decisions independently  5. Are motivated by fear  6. Fail to connect teamwork with success  7. Operate dependently or independently  8. Tolerate each other and the work  9. Accept complacency with no sense of urgency 10. Avoid risk  1. Compete outwardly together  2. Share a team agenda  3. Value innovation and continuous improvement  4. Make decisions participatively  5. Are motivated by opportunity  6. Link team success to organization success  7. Work interdependently  8. Enjoy each other and the work  9. Embrace a sense of urgency 10. Thrive on challenge, take risks Because an organization’s work is largely carried out by teams whose members have to cooperate, create, and collaborate, helping members build these interpersonal skills and the infrastructure in which they are supported can boost the organization’s ability to accomplish its mission. Building capacity in group or team processes and development is important to ensure that new groups or teams start off on the right foot. It also strengthens established groups or teams that are embroiled in conflict, unproductive, or lacking focus. This section features some interventions that OD consultants use to build highly function- ing groups and teams. Dialogue Can you recall a conversation in which each person aggressively advocated a point and tried to convince everyone to agree? What was the outcome? Such win–lose conversations do not usually result in constructive outcomes or new learning for the participants, yet they are dif- ficult to avoid. Just turn on your television or radio, listen to politicians, or attend a meeting for numerous examples of such point–counterpoint discussion, which is often heated. This type of communication is a discussion, the dominant form of discourse in U.S. culture, which generally involves participants aggressively advocating their own point of view. “The word discussion stems from the Latin discutere, which meant ‘to smash to pieces’” (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, & Smith, 1994, p. 353). The term is also related to the words percussion and concussion, with the general meaning of heaving back and forth to beat the opponent down and prove a point in a win–lose confrontation. Discussion promotes group © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development fragmentation and wars of advocacy between members. Linguist Deborah Tannen (1999) referred to this conversational crisis as the “Argument Culture,” in which communication is focused on confrontational discourse; it is a win–lose proposition for individuals caught in this vicious conversational cycle. Alternatively, you can probably recall really invigorating, exciting conversations in which each participant built on the points being made and people were open to questioning their view- points, learning from each other, and changing their minds. This type of inquiry-based dis- course is known as dialogue. Dialogue is contrasted with discussion as its polar opposite and is recommended by Tannen (1999) and others (Ellinor & Gerard, 2014; Isaacs, 1999; Senge et al., 1994) as an alternative communication means that is focused on inquiry and learning, rather than advocacy of a certain point of view. Dialogue is a mutual exploration of a concept or viewpoint. Dialogue is inquiry based; that is, you seek to be open, learn, and probe into the think- ing of the speaker. Discussion, in contrast, focuses on advocating a point of view and convincing the listener to agree with the speaker. Journalist Celeste Headlee offered a wonderful summary of research and strat- egies for having better conversations in her 2017 book We Need to Talk: How to Have Conversations That Matter. An important concept she advanced was that people often engage in narcissistic conversation, that is, the tendency to make every conversation about yourself. Instead of providing support when a person says, “I am having a hard time meeting this deadline,” a narcissistic conversational response would shift the attention back to yourself by saying something like, “I am crushing my deadlines right now.” A more supportive reply would remain focused on the speaker, explore why he or she is hav- ing difficulty meeting deadlines, and engage him or her in an inquiry-based conversation or dialogue. You can avoid the trap of narcissistic conversation and shift to dialogue by asking questions. Although you may shift the conversation toward yourself by sharing your experi- ence or opinions, you eventually shift it back to the listener by asking a question such as, “What have you tried so far to manage your deadlines?” or “What is one thing you could do next week to make progress on your deadlines?” Dialogue is rooted in the Greek words dia (meaning “through” or “with each other”) and logos (meaning “the word”) (Senge et al., 1994, p. 353). Together, dia logos means “through meaning.” It can be thought of as meaning that flows through a group of people, where new understandings and ideas emerge. Whereas discussion is advocacy based, dialogue is inquiry based. The goal is not to find the right answer, but rather to examine multiple perspectives surrounding an issue that would not have been possible through individual reflection or dis- cussion. Dialogue is the collective engagement in reflective practice, discussed in Chapter 1 of this book. Effective OD consultants hone their dialogue skills and use them across all inter- ventions. Dialogue is an effective team process because it requires individuals to slow down JasonDoiy/E+/Getty Images Plus You probably engage in true dialogue more often with friends than with coworkers. Why is dialogue important in OD? © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development and listen to each other. The AutoMark team members learned this skill, and it helped them converse about complicated issues that crossed several people’s functional territory. Being skilled at dialogue will also help individuals and teams better apply other interventions. Why Do OD Consultants Advocate Dialogue? Throughout the action research process, consultants help clients adopt new behaviors, learn new ways of listening and speaking, and cultivate new tools for bridging understanding and dealing with disagreement. Because win–lose conversation is so prevalent in U.S. culture, engaging in dialogue is a major change for most organization members. They need training in how to dialogue, ideally at the beginning of the action research process, so that it can serve the team as it navigates the challenges of implementing change. Dialogue helps consultants achieve multiple interventions such as listening, problem solv- ing, decision making, strategic planning, talent management, and more. Specific benefits of dialogue include • conversing in ways that help clients think and reflect differently, • asking good questions that advance the conversation, • using new knowledge created from the conversation, • engaging in questioning that informs better decision making and action, • sharing broader and deeper feedback than a back-and-forth discussion would yield, • steering members away from argumentation and toward deeper inquiry that probes and challenges ideas, • shifting away from unconditional acceptance of dominant ideas, and • creating an atmosphere that is tough on the issues and easy on the people. How Do OD Consultants Help Facilitate Dialogue? Dialogue is not easy. It requires new listening and conversing, which for most people means changing lifelong bad habits. There are several ways to use dialogue. Some guidelines for achieving a dialogue that is inquiry based include the following: • Situate participants in a barrier-free circle (e.g., no tables). This configuration physi- cally removes obstacles and creates a more vulnerable space for the dialogue. • Ask participants to suspend assumptions and certainties. This means that everyone willingly questions his or her own ideas and beliefs, as well as those of others. • Listen. This is more important than talking. There are several ways an OD consultant can promote listening: a. Use a “talking stick.” Provide a stick, ball, or some other artifact that signals the right to speak. Participants must have possession of the talking stick to speak. b. Blindfold participants to remove nonverbal cues that people use to dominate conversation. c. Involve all participants in monitoring listening and confronting bad listening be- haviors such as interrupting or signaling to speak before the speaker has finished. • Focus on inquiry and reflection instead of decision and action. • Observe equality of members and give equal air time to everyone who desires to speak. • Respect differences. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development • Suspend role identification. This means that participants cannot invoke their roles in the organization hierarchy to make points or dominate (“As the vice president, here is how I see it”). Nor can participants look to people who have certain roles and ask for guidance (“As our vice president, what do you think?”). • Strive for learning over results. This means that the dialogue is a time to truly think about a problem. Once new knowledge is created and the dialogue ends, insight can be used to make decisions and act. Dialogue helps people slow down and evaluate decisions that are poorly thought out. • Allow speakers to talk without interrupting. This is probably the most challeng- ing aspect of dialogue, because everyone wants to be heard and advocate his or her viewpoint. • Ensure confidentiality among the group. What is said in a dialogue stays in the dialogue. Team Life Cycle There has been an enduring interest in group dynamics since the advent of OD. Tuckman (1965) reviewed 55 articles dealing with stages of small group development and isolated commonalities. From this research, he created a model of stages that groups experience in order to become high performing. He called this the group or team life cycle. Tuckman’s model laid the groundwork for understanding and researching groups and remains one of the best-known models of group development (see Figure 8.1). See if you can identify these stages in a group you belong to or apply them to the AutoMark vignette. Figure 8.1: Tuckman’s stages of group development Tuckman’s model, which shows how groups become high performing, remains one of the best-known group development models. FORMING Group members get familiar with each other STORMING Group experiences tension or conflict in determining tasks and norms NORMING Group establishes working agreements and builds productive work relationships PERFORMING Group matures into effective working relationships and task accomplishment © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development Later group development models have added a fifth stage, adjourning. In this stage, the group disbands after it has moved through the first four stages and met its goals. Although it is a widely used model of group development, Tuckman’s (1965) model is only one of several that have grown out of Kurt Lewin’s field theory. Lewin suggested that a group has its own psychological field or life space that consists of the group and all the variables in its environment and affects the group’s behavior (Lewin, 1947). Cummings and Worley (2009) proposed that group effectiveness could be judged based on the degree to which the task was accomplished, the level of satisfaction experienced by the group members, and the viability of the group itself. Why Do OD Consultants Pay Attention to the Team Life Cycle? The team life cycle model serves multiple purposes. First, it helps the consultant observe where the group or team is in its development and plan interventions accordingly. If a team Consider This Virtual teams have become increasingly common in a global economy where organizations seek to bring teams together that combine needed talent and expertise to solve challenging problems (Furst, Reeves, Rosen, & Blackburn, 2004). Think of virtual teams you have partici- pated in and list the challenges. Furst et al. (2004) offered key interventions for the virtual stages of team development: Forming Storming Norming Performing • Share lessons from prior virtual teams • Coach virtual teams with coaches experienced in virtual teaming • Develop a shared sense of team identity through deliberate relationship building • Acquire senior management support • Engage in face-to-face team building experiences (virtual F2F OK) • Train members on conflict resolution • Encourage a spirit of seeking common ground during conflict • Seek mediation when consensus is impossible • Create templates for specifying action items and tasks • Develop individual accountability measures such as due dates and schedules of work • Distinguish task, social, and contextual information and design procedures for each • Assign a team coach with virtual facilitation skills • Ensure the organization culture supports virtual teamwork • Provide needed support and resources for team performance Source: Adapted from “Managing the Life Cycle of Virtual Teams,” by S. A. Furst, M. Reeves, B. Rosen, and R. Blackburn, 2004, The Academy of Management Executive (1993–2005), 18(2), 6–20. © Taylor & Francis. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development is just getting started, it is likely to be at the forming or storming stages. Agenda-driven inter- ventions are probably warranted, and when the group gets stuck storming, conflict resolution can also be helpful. Helping team members understand the life cycle helps them recognize the challenges and conflicts that arise as normal developmental processes. This in turn helps depersonalize the difficulties associated with collective goal pursuit and allows members to focus on moving to the next stage. When managers understand the team life cycle, they can help the groups and teams they manage through more effective decision making, problem solving, and conflict resolution. How Do OD Consultants Help Clients Learn About the Team Life Cycle? An effective way to teach the team life cycle is through an experiential activity. A popular one is the Tinkertoy activity: 1. Organize the team into groups of about four to six people (depending on the size of the group). 2. Give each group a bag of Tinkertoys. They should have the same number and type of pieces in each bag, or give each group their own container. 3. Each group is given the following instructions: a. Build the tallest freestanding tower with the materials provided. b. Groups have 20 minutes to plan and 40 seconds to build. c. Pieces cannot be connected during planning (they will be removed by the facilitator). 4. Facilitators serve as timekeepers. 5. All pieces are returned to the bag or container before building. 6. Construction must stop when the time limit is reached. 7. Once the activity ends, debrief around the stages of the team life cycle and help par- ticipants see how they moved through the stages. There are dozens of such activities available to help develop teams. Find some resources you are comfortable using and become familiar with them. Team Start-Up or Transition Helping a team get off to a positive and productive start requires support from the beginning. It is common for organizations to set high expectations for teams without giving them the support or training needed to be high functioning; they then wonder why a team could not produce. Effective team-based OD interventions set teams up for success, whether they are new or already exist. Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Team Start-Up? Giving teams a strong foundation at their formation helps them build the capacity to do what is expected of them. At a minimum, new or transitioning teams should be given a clear goal and the necessary resources to accomplish it. They also need training on the team life cycle and the tools for moving through the stages. Providing the team with training and a structure © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development for effective meetings helps them make good use of their time together. Topics to explore to help the team get off on the right foot might include • the team life cycle, • a change model (such as Lewin’s unfreezing, moving, and refreezing), • a problem-solving model, • meeting-effectiveness tips, and • team-building exercises. How Do OD Consultants Do Team Start-Up? Some key steps to follow include the following: 1. Establish a clear goal or charge for the team. 2. Create roles (e.g., facilitator, note taker, process observer). 3. Rotate roles. 4. Identify members’ communication expectations and needs. 5. Develop ground rules. 6. Create agendas for meetings. 7. Use tools to enhance meeting facilitation, such as decision-making and consensus procedures. 8. Evaluate team process on an ongoing basis. Team Building A common OD intervention is team building, that is, training and other activities that help teams perform more efficiently and effectively. This type of activity can also be used for team start-up. McGregor (1960) defined effective teams as those that 1. foster a relaxed and comfortable atmosphere, 2. clearly understand and accept their tasks, 3. are able to engage in dialogue and effective listening behaviors, 4. are tough on the issues and easy on each other, 5. use consensus decision making, and 6. complete their actions. Why Do OD Consultants Do Team Building? Team-building OD interventions are centered on helping members move through the stages of group development (Tuckman, 1965) and on helping the team settle on task roles, goals, Consider This The AutoMark vignette provides a classic case of teams working on parts of a larger project but not collaborating, with problematic results. Considering the strategies and steps for help- ing teams start up, what has been your experience with these start-up strategies when you joined a new team, and what were the consequences? © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development relationship building, group process, and activities to ensure smooth functioning. Team build- ing is often accomplished through training and ongoing process checks as the team works on its activities. Specifically, team building can facilitate • improved morale and leadership skills among team members, • the elimination of barriers that thwart creativity and collaboration, • the definition of clear objectives and goals, • improved processes and procedures, • improved productivity and results, • targeting and eliminating team weak- nesses, and • building up team strengths. How did these strategies play out in the Auto- Mark vignette? How Do OD Consultants Do Team Building? A successful team is only as good as its mem- bers, so following the team start-up tips will get the team primed to build deeper relation- ships. Burn (2004) suggested that skilled team members use the following approaches: • Develop norms and roles compatible with team success. • Build a group with norms of cooperation. • Make status assignments based on specific-status characteristics. • Minimize status differences. • Engage in constructive controversy. • Use constructive confrontation when group norms are violated. • Establish a supportive communication climate. • Recognize the benefits of member diversity. • Create a superordinate (shared) group identity. • Use group goal setting. • Rely on explicit coordination and pre-planning. • Persuade members that their contributions are needed, noticed and valued. • Tie valued individual outcomes to group outcomes. • Balance task and socioemotional leadership. • Choose discussion and decision-making procedures that prevent domination by a few members and ensure that … Organization-Level Interventions 9 PeopleImages/E+/Getty Images Plus Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • Discuss the role of vision, mission, and values in driving organization-level change. • Describe key activities that facilitate strategic planning, such as environmental scanning, SWOT analysis, SMART goals, and scenario planning. • Of the various organization designs, identify those that best facilitate the organization’s mis- sion and those that need to be reorganized or restructured. • Explain how learning can be used strategically, such as by capturing organization learning and developing a strategic learning organization. • Explore how culture influences organizations and can be changed through interventions. • Describe key talent management interventions, such as talent management strategy and succession planning. • Examine the role of large-scale interactive events for organization change. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. A nonprofit health care organization had been struggling to keep its doors open. When the region’s largest employer went out of business, the size and needs of the population served by the organization rose significantly; it was becoming increasingly difficult to provide services to clients. The executive director, Jane, was relatively new and decided the organization needed to improve its ability to raise funds. Jane contracted with an OD consultant, Jeff, to address the issue. Jeff took Jane and the organization through the action research process to discover the root cause of the problem. He began by collecting data. He reviewed the organization’s website and bro- chures and interviewed employees, donors, and clients. After analyzing the data, he concluded that the organization was not clearly communicating its mission and services well enough and that it lacked a strategic plan. Jeff also suspected that the organization design was not conducive to carrying out its work. Jeff and Jane began to address this problem by holding a retreat. During the retreat, board mem- bers and staff engaged in numerous exercises to express, clarify, and revise their mission, vision, and values statements. For example, they spent time identifying the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats over the short, mid-, and long term. They imagined vari- ous scenarios that would create very different outcomes for the organization, such as changes in health care coverage, escalating expenses, a new employer moving into town, future company closures, and an electronic medical record. Immediately following the retreat, the organization updated its website, letterhead, and bro- chures to reflect its more concise mission, vision, and values. Jeff and Jane also worked with the board on developing a 5-year strategic plan that included more aggressive communication to potential donors, increased fundraising efforts, and enhanced diversity of both its board mem- bers and its donor base. Part of the strategic plan included reorganizing the nonprofit around its programs to more readily respond to its distinct stakeholder groups, such as patients and insurance companies. The reorganization was preceded by a large-scale event that brought together employees, patients, other health care providers, board members, and other local nonprofits that worked closely with the organization to plan for the future and how best to meet its needs. Each of these steps will be illuminated in the following sections. Organization-level OD interventions tend to be more comprehensive and long term than indi- vidual and group interventions. Their goal is to help the organization set direction, determine strategy, solicit feedback, facilitate learning, manage knowledge, change the culture, value diversity, develop the work force, and manage day-to-day activities. Although the list of poten- tial interventions is endless, this chapter introduces the range and variety of interventions that are typically used in OD. These can be categorized into seven areas: mission, vision, or values development; strategic planning; organization design; learning infrastructure; culture; talent management; and large-scale interactive events (see Table 9.1). The first of these is the develop- ment of mission, vision, and values statements. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 9.1Mission, Vision, and Values Development Table 9.1: Categories of individual OD intervention Mission, vision, and values development Strategic planning Organization design Learning infra- structure Culture Talent management Large-scale interactive events Mission Environ- mental scanning Organization structure Organization learning Culture change Talent management strategy Interactive Strategic Planning Vision SWOT analysis Reorganization Learning organization Diversity and inclusion Succession planning Future Search Values SMART goals Scenario planning — — — — Conference  Model  Redesign Open Space  Technology 9.1 Mission, Vision, and Values Development If an organization is to communicate its core beliefs to the world, it must have a clear and concise statement of its mission, vision, and values. Start-up, merged, or significantly reorga- nized organizations need to develop or revise these statements, and even established organi- zations should revisit them periodically. OD consultants often get involved in these efforts. Mission A mission statement explains why an organization exists. It identifies the organization’s tar- get audience and the product or service it provides in a way that expresses the organization’s core values. Good mission statements are easy to remember and describe. Why Do OD Consultants Advocate Mission Statements? Mission statements create boundaries of service, motivate staff, and help evaluate whether the organization has met its goals. They succinctly communicate the organization’s purpose to both the internal and the external world. They can also help focus strategic planning, prod- uct development, and innovation. Consider This Take a moment to jot down the vision, mission, and values of your organization. Can you do it from memory? If not, you are in good company, because most employees and other organi- zation stakeholders cannot; this signals that these statements are probably in need of some revision. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 9.1Mission, Vision, and Values Development How Do OD Consultants Help Organizations Create Mission Statements? There are three parts of a good mission statement: the audience, the product or ser- vice, and the evaluative measures. Consider a social media company’s mission state- ment to evaluate these elements: “TechConnect’s mission is to give people the power to communicate and connect worldwide.” • Audience: The audience defines whom the organization serves. TechConnect is boundaryless to people who have access to a device and an Internet connection. Tech- Connect’s audience is “people . . . worldwide,” as noted in the statement. • Product or service: The product or service identifies what the orga- nization provides. TechConnect’s service is social networking, with the aim of openly connecting the world. • Evaluative measures: Evaluative measures are the standards by which the organization can be judged in terms of whether it is achieving its mission. TechConnect’s mission is to connect people throughout the world. How well it is doing that might be measured by the number of users, ad revenue, or site traffic. Mission statements should be short, succinct, and easy to remember, like the ones listed ear- lier in this section. Management guru Peter Drucker was known to have advocated mission statements that were no longer than eight words and could easily fit on a T-shirt. In his opin- ion, anything larger was simply too long (Wartzman, 2012). Chances are, if you cannot state an organization’s mission, it may not be a good statement. You can use Figure 9.1 to write your own mission statement or evaluate your organization’s mission according to how well it articulates audience, product or service, and evaluative measures. Bloomberg/Getty Images An organization’s mission is its reason for being. It is usually based on a central product or service. eBay’s mission statement from 2013 was, “We exist to serve, and, through our service, we create an engaged and loyal eBay community.” In 2020, eBay’s website read, “Our mission is to be the world’s favorite destination for discovering great value and unique selection.” © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 9.1Mission, Vision, and Values Development Figure 9.1: Mission statement assessment worksheet Use this worksheet to write or evaluate your organization’s mission statement. Download a copy in your e-book. Jeff and Jane, from the opening vignette, planned a retreat with staff and the board, who used their time away to craft a mission statement that could be communicated more succinctly. A list of exemplary mission statements can be found at the following link: https://blog.hubspot. com/marketing/inspiring-company-mission-statements. Vision A vision statement articulates an organization’s desired end state. When the organization is able to articulate its image of a desired future—that is, where it wants to go and what it will be like once it gets there—it has clear vision (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, & Smith, 1994). Although leaders are responsible for formulating vision, Senge and colleagues (1994) argued that fostering and fulfilling the vision is everyone’s responsibility. Examples of good vision statements include these: Motorcycle company: “To awaken adventure through motorcycling” Mission Statement Worksheet The Audience (the boundary) The Product or Service Evaluative Measures Now, put the three functions together in a succinct statement: © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 9.1Mission, Vision, and Values Development Wine maker: “To be the world’s most distinguished producer of fine wines” Chain restaurant: “To create a first-rate, accessible dining company” Why Do OD Consultants Advocate Vision Statements? Noting that “not all visions are equal” (p. 299), Senge and colleagues (1994) identified several attributes that make a vision powerful. Powerful visions “tap into an organization’s deeper sense of purpose and articulate specific goals that represent making that purpose real, [and] have unique power to engender aspirations and commitment” (Senge et al., 1994, p. 299). Creating a shared vision requires stakeholders to reflect on the organization’s purpose and future. Senge and colleagues (1994) equated building shared vision with building shared meaning that yields a collective sense of what is important. How Do OD Consultants Help Organizations Development Vision Statements? The consultant helps the client determine how it hopes its products or services might change the world. The vision statement should capture the organization’s dream; it is a picture of the organization’s ultimate success. There are multiple methods for creating vision statements. These include simple word smith- ery and generative activities in which multiple participants identify key vision ideas that are collated and ranked. Other companies may use exercises involving pictures and visual aids to create images of the desired future. Table 9.2 compares the characteristics of vision and mis- sion statements. A list of exemplary vision statements can be found at https://fitsmallbusiness.com/ vision-statement-examples/. Table 9.2: Comparing mission and vision statements Mission statements: Why the organization exists Vision statements: The organization’s desired end state Succinct one-sentence statement explaining why the organization exists. It should 1. be simple and clear, 2. avoid jargon, 3. be easily memorized, 4. be distinctive, and 5. not be confused with a vision statement. Succinct one-sentence statement describing the organization’s long-term desired end state. It should 1. be simple and clear, 2. avoid jargon, 3. be easily memorized, and 4. not be confused with a mission statement. Examples of mission and vision statements Automobile Company Mission Go the distance: We go the distance to exceed the expectations of our customers in quality and performance. Automobile Company Vision To be the world’s leading provider of automotive products and services Children’s Hospital Mission Committed to making them all better: We make chil- dren better today, and healthier in the future. Children’s Hospital Vision To transform the landscape of pediatric health care and improve the health of all children © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 9.2Strategic Planning Values An organization’s values are principles that govern how the organization expects to function in pursuit of its vision. OD consultants are often hired to help the organization clarify and articulate its values, along with its mission and vision. Why Do OD Consultants Help Clients Develop Values Statements? A values statement brings the mission and vision statements to life by describing what the organization believes in and how it will behave. These statements signal the organization’s beliefs and culture. Values statements can serve as a moral compass for the organization by defining leadership expectations, establishing standards, and guiding decisions. How Do OD Consultants Help Clients Develop Values Statements? Values are usually derived in conjunction with mission and vision statements. They are gen- erally based on consensus and ideally involve input from top management and stakeholders across the organization. OD interventions often center on helping organizations articulate their mission, vision, and values in a collective process that is developmental. This process may involve other visioning interventions introduced later in this chapter, such as a Future Search Conference, SWOT analysis, or environmental scanning. Creating the mission, vision, and values statements is often an integral part of strategic planning. 9.2 Strategic Planning Strategic planning is “a disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what an organization (or other entity) is, what it does, and why it does it” (Bryson, 2004, p. 6). Strategic planning seeks to accomplish several goals, includ- ing establishing or revisiting long-term vision, values, and mission statements that span several years. Strategic planning scans the environment to assess the competitors, prod- ucts, and services that characterize the industry context. The plan generates strategies to be implemented over a 5-year period that delineate specific activities, champions to advocate for the plan, and deadlines for accomplishing tasks. For example, Jeff and Jane led the non- profit health organization’s staff and board through a strategic planning process that helped accomplish these goals. Consider This What are the values of an organization of which you are a part? How are the values com- municated or visible? For example, Patagonia communicates its value of “saving the planet” in how it manufactures, markets, and affects the environment: https://www.patagonia.com/ company-info.html. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 9.2Strategic Planning The strategic planning process has several steps, including • engaging in comprehensive, effective information gathering; • clarifying the organization’s mission, vision, and values; • identifying issues to be addressed in pursuit of the mission; • developing and exploring strategic alternatives; • emphasizing the future impact of present decisions; and • creating specific, measurable actions and timelines, usually in 5-year increments. Strategic planning helps organizations communicate their mission and goals to employees and other stakeholders. The process is often collective and seeks input from across the orga- nization and its constituents. It represents multiple agendas, interests, and values. It also cre- ates a deliberative assessment of the past, present, and future and establishes accountability measures. An organization typically makes a public commitment to its strategic plan and uses the plan to guide its decisions and actions. Figure 9.2 outlines a simple approach to strategic planning. Figure 9.2: Strategic planning steps Strategic planning is a three-step process to determine where you are, where you want to be, and how to get there. An effective strategic plan will communicate the organization’s mission, vision, and values to the organization’s constituents. The plan will also help the organization prioritize and allocate resources and provide a basis for measuring progress and change. Consultants who facilitate a strategic planning process must educate themselves on the necessary steps, Determine where you are Decide where you want to be Plan how to get there • Mission and vision • Programs and services • People and skills • Organization structure • Communications • Budget support • Mission and vision • Programs and services • People and skills • Organization structure • Communications • Budget support • Strategic plan • Restructuring and reengineering • Hiring and training • IT and HR plans • Communications • Budget allocations • Metrics © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 9.2Strategic Planning usually by undergoing continuing education or graduate study. They should also use products such as OnStrategy (https://onstrategyhq.com/) to track progress and make the plan and accomplishments visible on the organization website. Additionally, they can access strategic planning tools and resources through the Council of Nonprofits: https://www.councilofnon profits.org/tools-resources/dashboards-nonprofits. Several interventions support the strategic planning process. These include environmental scanning, SWOT analysis, creating SMART goals, and scenario planning. Each will be profiled in the following sections. Environmental Scanning When the organization scrutinizes external and internal factors that provide critical informa- tion about its future, the organization is engaged in environmental scanning. Environmental scanning involves both external and internal scans: • External scans examine industry and government reports, journals, conferences, and any other sources that can be used to evaluate the industry. This information might include competitors, market conditions, government regulations, demographics, technology, economic development, global trends, or anything else that might affect the organization’s livelihood. • Internal scans draw on stakeholder interviews, annual reports, planning documents, analysis reports, customer surveys, employee surveys, marketing reports, board meeting minutes, human resource databases, and other sources that provide rel- evant information. Why Do OD Consultants Recommend Environmental Scanning? Environmental scanning systematically scrutinizes the organizational context (economic, competitive, social, political, and so forth) and collects data to develop a picture of current and future conditions that could positively or negatively affect the organization. Environmen- tal scanning is important for organizations to maintain or improve their competitive position. The data generated by an environmental scan is used to develop or change strategies and plans. Environmental scanning can be done on any scale. Individuals may engage in it on a personal level when they try to understand the job market or select the best product to buy. Organizations use it regularly to anticipate the future and be more internally and externally strategic. How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Environmental Scanning? Environmental scanning involves the following steps: 1. Collect data about the context in which the organization operates, including a. economic, b. government, c. legal, © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 9.2Strategic Planning d. demographic, e. social, f. political, and g. environmental. 2. Use data sources such as a. publications, b. focus groups, c. industry leaders, d. internal leaders, e. media, and f. civic associations. 3. Critically examine competitors to discover trends, opportunities, and threats that have implications for the organization. 4. Conduct an internal scan to examine the organization’s strengths and weaknesses. This should include reviewing short- and long-term goals. 5. Assess where the organization is now and where it should be in 10 years. Conduct a gap analysis as discussed in Chapter 4. 6. Collect relevant data from the community in which the organization operates. Out- comes might be joint projects or strategies. Relevant stakeholders might include a. nonprofit organizations, b. governmental or social agencies, c. higher education institutions, and d. religious organizations. 7. Analyze the data and use it to develop or modify strategy. Have you ever participated in environmental scanning? See the activity at the end of the chap- ter to practice. SWOT Analysis During a SWOT analysis, employees and other stakeholders come together to identify an organization’s strengths and weaknesses and to examine environmental opportunities and threats. It is often done as part of strategic planning and is very effective if performed correctly. Why Do OD Consultants Do SWOT Analysis? The act of simply carrying out an analysis using the SWOT framework can be enough to reveal what needs to change and to stimulate new ideas. SWOT analyses are often undertaken fol- lowing environmental scanning to establish strategies to maximize opportunities and mini- mize threats. How Do OD Consultants Do SWOT Analysis? To carry out a SWOT analysis, reflect on the questions listed in Table 9.3. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 9.2Strategic Planning Table 9.3: SWOT analysis Strengths Weaknesses • What are our advantages? • What do we do well? • What are our • Unique capabilities? • Natural advantages? • Superior resources? • What could we improve? • What are we doing badly? • What should we avoid? • What are our • Key vulnerabilities? • Disadvantages? • Resource and capability shortfalls? Opportunities Threats (Challenges) • Where are the good chances facing us? • What are the interesting trends? • What are the • Changes in the social, economic, and political environment? • Changes in technology? • Changes in government policy? • Changes in markets? • Weaknesses of our competitors? • Unmet customer needs? • Staff and supplier capabilities? • Size, location, and strategic positioning? • Changes in social patterns, population profiles, lifestyle changes, etc.? • Local events that have potential? • What obstacles do we face? • What is our competition doing? • Are the required specifications of our work, products, or services changing? • Is changing technology threatening our position? • Do we have bad debt or cash flow problems? • Are we at risk of • Resistance to change? • Lack of interest or motivation? • Lack of commitment? • Lack of flexibility or focus? • Mismatch of skills and resources with the strategic direction? • High risks or impossible odds? Facilitating a SWOT analysis for a client involves following these steps: 1. Ask participants to individually brainstorm on each of the SWOT categories (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats). Have them write down their ideas on Post-it notes. 2. Invite participants to place their Post-it notes on flip charts stationed around the room. Each flip chart should be devoted to one SWOT category. Individuals will work around the room in carousel fashion, adding one issue to each flip chart until all ideas are exhausted. 3. Tally the issues. Seek consensus on prioritization of the key issues in each SWOT category. 4. Review and discuss the issues. 5. Invite the group to raise questions and answers. 6. Help the group plan action around key issue(s). 7. Summarize the process and outcomes. Keep in mind that groups have a tendency to get stuck in the process of identifying issues and have difficulty moving toward commitment to action. Plan for transition out of the SWOT analysis to bridge the gap between idea generation and meaningful action. Returning to the vignette, the nonprofit organization underwent a SWOT analysis as part of its planning to adjust priorities and goals. The process helped clarify the nonprofit’s chal- lenges around fundraising in particular. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 9.2Strategic Planning SMART Goals Strategic plans should incorporate SMART goals. SMART goals are • Specific • Measurable • Attainable • Realistic or Relevant • Time bound The SMART mnemonic was introduced by George Doran, Arthur Miller, and James Cunning- ham in 1981 (Doran, Miller, & Cunningham, 1981). Since that time, it has served as the stan- dard tool for creating effective goals. How Do OD Consultants Help Clients Set SMART Goals? Table 9.4 offers descriptions and examples of SMART goals. Table 9.4: Setting SMART goals Description Personal example Organization example Specific A specific goal can be clearly visual- ized. Specifics help us focus and clearly define actions. Specifics are the what, why, how, and who of the SMART model. WHAT are you going to do? Use action words such as increase, orga- nize, collaborate, lead, develop, plan, establish, and build. WHY is the goal important at this time? What do you ultimately want to accomplish? HOW are you going to do it? WHO is going to do it? Instead of setting a goal to lose weight, set a specific goal, such as losing 2 inches off your waistline, losing 5 pounds in 5 weeks, or walking 5 miles at an aerobically challenging pace. Instead of setting a goal to retain employees, set a specific goal, such as improving retention by 10\% over the next 90 days and implementing an onboarding program to provide orientation to new employees. Measurable An old management adage is “If you cannot measure it, it does not matter.” Furthermore, you cannot manage it. A goal provides a measur- ing stick. If the goal is accomplished, success has been achieved. An organization may also build several short-term or small measurements into the goal to measure incremental progress along the way. A goal that is dif- ficult to measure would be “Lose weight.” A better goal with measur- able steps would be “Lose 1 pound per week for 5 weeks” or “Exercise for 30 minutes every day.” “The organization will improve retention by 10\% over the next 90 days.” (continued on next page) © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 9.2Strategic Planning Table 9.4: Setting SMART goals (continued) Description Personal example Organization example Attainable Goals should be attainable and pos- sible to reach. The goal should create some challenge in that it is neither too easy nor too difficult to reach and will require push to attain. The goal should be within the employee’s or organization’s ability and resources to achieve and should align with the work unit goals. Aiming to lose 10 pounds in 1 week is not attainable (or healthy). A more attainable goal is to lose 1 to 2 pounds per week for a sustained period of time. Aiming to improve reten- tion by 10\% is realistic, and after the 90-day period, the organiza- tion can adjust its goal and approaches (e.g., onboarding) to see if that affects retention. Realistic or relevant Realistic does not mean “effortless.” A realistic SMART goal is within the employee’s or team’s capabil- ity. Although the goal may challenge employees to develop new skills and knowledge, it will not throw them into the panic zone or break their motivation to continue because it seems possible to reach. This part of the SMART goal frame- work is called … BUS370.W4A1.04.2021 Description: Total Possible Score: 6.00 Selects an Intervention for the Case Study Total: 1.00 Distinguished - Selects an appropriate intervention for the case study. Proficient - N/A Basic - Selects a limited intervention for the case study.  Below Expectations - Attempts to select an intervention for the case study; however, significant details are missing or inappropriate. Non-Performance - The intervention for the case study is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions. Evaluates Why the Intervention Is Applicable to the Case Study Total: 2.00 Distinguished - Comprehensively evaluates why the intervention is applicable to the case study. Proficient - Evaluates why the intervention is applicable to the case study. Minor details are missing. Basic - Partially evaluates why the intervention is applicable to the case study. Relevant details are missing. Below Expectations - Attempts to evaluate why the intervention is applicable to the case study; however, significant details are missing. Non-Performance - The evaluation of why the intervention is applicable to the case study is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions. Interprets the Actions Involved When Utilizing the Intervention Total: 1.00 Distinguished - Clearly and accurately interprets the actions involved when utilizing the intervention. Proficient - Interprets the actions involved when utilizing the intervention. Minor details are slightly unclear or inaccurate. Basic - Vaguely interprets the actions involved when utilizing the intervention. Relevant details are unclear and/or inaccurate. Below Expectations - Attempts to interpret the actions involved when utilizing the intervention; however, significant details are unclear and inaccurate. Non-Performance - The interpretation of the actions involved when utilizing the intervention is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions. Written Communication: Control of Syntax and Mechanics Total: 0.50 Distinguished - Displays meticulous comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains no errors and is very easy to understand. Proficient - Displays comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains only a few minor errors and is mostly easy to understand. Basic - Displays basic comprehension of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains a few errors which may slightly distract the reader. Below Expectations - Fails to display basic comprehension of syntax or mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains major errors which distract the reader. Non-Performance - The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions. Written Communication: APA Formatting Total: 0.50 Distinguished - Accurately uses APA formatting consistently throughout the paper, title page, and reference page. Proficient - Exhibits APA formatting throughout the paper. However, layout contains a few minor errors.  Basic - Exhibits limited knowledge of APA formatting throughout the paper. However, layout does not meet all APA requirements.  Below Expectations - Fails to exhibit basic knowledge of APA formatting. There are frequent errors, making the layout difficult to distinguish as APA. Non-Performance - The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions. Intro, Thesis, & Conclusion Total: 0.25 Distinguished - The paper is logically organized with a well-written introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion. Proficient - The paper is logically organized with an introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion. One of these requires improvement. Basic - The paper is organized with an introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion. The introduction, thesis statement, and/or conclusion require improvement. Below Expectations - The paper is loosely organized with an introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion. The introduction, thesis statement, and/or conclusion require much improvement. Non-Performance - The introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion are either nonexistent or lack the components described in the assignment instructions. Written Communication: Page Requirement Total: 0.25 Distinguished - The length of the paper is equivalent to the required number of correctly formatted pages.  Proficient - The length of the paper is nearly equivalent to the required number of correctly formatted pages.  Basic - The length of the paper is equivalent to at least three quarters of the required number of correctly formatted pages. Below Expectations - The length of the paper is equivalent to at least one half of the required number of correctly formatted pages.    Non-Performance - The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions. Written Communication: Resource Requirement Total: 0.50 Distinguished - Uses more than the required number of scholarly sources, providing compelling evidence to support ideas. All sources on the reference page are used and cited correctly within the body of the assignment. Proficient - Uses the required number of scholarly sources to support ideas. All sources on the reference page are used and cited correctly within the body of the assignment. Basic - Uses less than the required number of sources to support ideas. Some sources may not be scholarly. Most sources on the reference page are used within the body of the assignment. Citations may not be formatted correctly. Below Expectations - Uses an inadequate number of sources that provide little or no support for ideas. Sources used may not be scholarly. Most sources on the reference page are not used within the body of the assignment. Citations are not formatted correctly. Non-Performance - The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions. Powered by By Steve H. Cady and Joo-Hyung Kim Unlike other capital investments, the value of learning appreciates, rather than depreciates.—Christopher Lee The evaluation of OD interventions has never been more promising than in this era with the advancements of such tools as data analytics; yet it remains challeng- ing for organizations to utilize a proper evaluation strategy. In this article, we begin by exploring the paradox of competing demands and then introduce a pragmatic model for selecting the optimal evaluation strategy by considering both the scope and rigor of analysis and leveraging the levels of evaluation from the field of train- ing and development. We conclude with reflections on evaluation from the perspec- tive of Gestalt OD Theory and collective consciousness. In today’s world of artificial intel- ligence, quantum computing, and data analytics, we are on the cusp of demon- strating the central importance of OD inter- ventions to the health and vitality of the systems we lead, consult, study, educate, and serve (Shah, Irani, & Sharif, 2017; Boje & Henderson, 2014). These advancements have enabled us to examine more readily how OD interventions positively impact the organization across multiple contexts and levels of analysis. For example, we are now capable of directly linking change processes to organizational performance (Pettigrew, Woodman, & Cameron, 2016). Further, this possibility does not stop with proving the importance of OD interventions. Evalua- tion tools enable us to learn from and tease out the nuances, and more specifically learn from interventions in order to improve them for future applications. These conditions above have set the stage for an evolutionary leap in the field of OD (Kleiner, 2015; Laloux, 2014; Lawler & Worley, 2011). On a national level, the US department of labor predicts that behavioral science fields such as OD will be serving the fastest growing occupa- tions (Career Trends, 2016). Likewise, the federal government has been supportive of the utility of behavioral sciences, as can be seen from the following statement: “Where federal policies have been designed to reflect behavioral science insights, they have substantially improved outcomes for the individuals, families, communities, and businesses those policies serve” (Presiden- tial Executive Order, 2016, p.1). While we are on the cusp of a new era, there are still challenges to be resolved. A successful evaluation of OD interventions is one of the difficulties many organiza- tional practitioners and leaders confront. The Paradox of Competing Demands Assessing the efficacy of OD interventions can be elusive, because it is dependent on the required accuracy of analysis ( Terborg, Howard, & Maxwell, 1980; Butler, Scott, & Edwards, 2003). The greater the required accuracy, the more rigorous and therefore more costly the design. It is this tension that describes the paradox of competing demands (Cady & Milz, 2015; Cady, Auger, & Foxon, 2010), which partly arises from What We Can Learn from Evaluating OD Interventions The Paradox of Competing Demands “In today’s world of artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and data analytics, we are on the cusp of demonstrating the central importance of OD interventions to the health and vitality of the systems we lead, consult, study, educate, and serve.” 50 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 49 No. 1 2017 the reality that you “can’t have your cake and eat it too.” The competing demands present a polarity of the purpose (i.e. prove and improve), and the cost (i.e. time and money). Purpose: Prove and Improve Proving Questions ❑ How many people are expected to be impacted by the intervention? ❑ Who is accountable for ensuring the intervention is implemented? ❑ Who else has the legal and govern- mental oversight? ❑ What were the political implications for the OD group and champions of the intervention? The first dimension of prove and improve relates to the intended purpose of the inter- vention. OD professionals find themselves defending interventions, proving that the interventions had the intended impact and added value to the bottom line. The need for proof is about accountability for results, while making the business case to the skeptics. Because OD is considered to be based on the softer behavioral sciences, the role of evaluation can be undervalued and oversimplified. For example, it is easier to measure one’s blood pressure (hard science) than one’s attitude (soft science). Or, it is easier to measure cost savings from “right sizing” an organization, than it is to measure cost savings from a training initiative. All the while, a core value of OD is to evaluate for the sake of learning, improv- ing the intervention and leveraging its strengths. In other words, the second aim is to evaluate in order to improve the inter- vention and the organization for the future. This future focus is based on the desire to understand how interventions worked, identify the relatively important elements of the intervention, advance theories, and create more robust interventions. Improving Questions ❑ How can the results inform us about future applications? ❑ Will the intervention be used in the future and, if so, how much? ❑ What are the uses for and scal- ability of the intervention for other settings? ❑ What is the expected impact on the wellbeing and culture of the organization? In some cases, an accurate evaluation is necessary to determine whether the inter- vention should be continued or scaled for other settings (Kirkpatrick, 1998; Nielsen & Abildgaard, 2013). However, perform- ing rigorous high quality evaluations of all interventions is not always practical, though it might appear ideal. It is a particu- larly relevant challenge when considering the competing paradox of time and money (Cady et al, 2010). Cost: Time and Money Conducting evaluations can be costly in terms of both time and money for all stakeholders involved. If either is too high, it is likely that the key decision makers will decide against conducting an evaluation altogether. Time Questions ❑ What are the required details for the design, data collection, and reporting? ❑ What are the demands by leader- ship on the evaluation? ❑ Who needs to be included in and informed of the evaluation? ❑ How many competing interventions are currently being implemented? In terms of time, leaders will need to pull people away from their typical tasks for evaluations, such as being interviewed, filling out surveys, and providing perfor- mance data. This opportunity cost is not always seen as a good use of time. Too often, surveys are filled out and go into the proverbial “black box,” never to be mentioned again. This lack of closing the loop is one of the biggest hindrances to getting reasonable response rates. Further, it erodes the trust of those impacted by the intervention, not to mention the loss of quality information, undermining the future applications of the intervention. Money may be another major determi- nant of an evaluation strategy, especially when outcomes are difficult to measure. It is possible that the evaluation can be the largest item in the budget for an inter- vention. Therefore, if the financial cost associated with an evaluation is beyond expectation, it may lead the organization to decide against conducting any evalua- tion. Evaluation competencies are another consideration. As you move to higher levels of evaluation, the required sophistication often surpasses the expertise of those responsible for the intervention (Cady & Milz, 2015; Cady et al, 2010), requiring additional inputs such as training and out sourced professionals. It is possible that the evaluation can be the largest item in the budget for an intervention. Therefore, if the financial cost associated with an evaluation is beyond expectation, it may lead the organization to decide against conducting any evaluation. Evaluation competencies are another consideration. As you move to higher levels of evaluation, the required sophistication often surpasses the expertise of those responsible for the intervention, requiring additional inputs such as training and outsourced professionals. 51What We Can Learn from Evaluating OD Interventions: The Paradox of Competing Demands Money Questions ❑ What are the intervention-related fees and staffing costs? ❑ How much are the opportunity costs from doing or not doing the evaluation? ❑ What are the technology, soft- ware, materials, and logistical requirements? ❑ How much of the intervention’s budget has been allocated for the evaluation? You Can’t Have Your Cake, and Eat It Too The competing demand comes from the desire to prove the effect of an interven- tion and improve it while minimizing the associated costs. Although a focus on the proving and improving of an intervention may result in better outcomes, it will cost more in terms of time and money (see Figure 1). In this case, how do you find the optimal point that balances the polarity of the benefits and costs? You can choose a costly evaluation that bears important implications for the organization or community. If there is a long-term implementation plan for the intervention, the intended impact is likely vital to the future; further, demonstrat- ing results in an objective fashion may be necessary for continued funding. However, there are also cases where a costly evalua- tion is not plausible or desirable. There may be no time or budget allo- cated to the evaluation because evaluations are often reactionary and not given enough planning. For example, the whole evalu- ation process might begin with a leader simply saying, “Did that program work . . . can you confirm that it was worth our time and money . . . are we better off . . . we are not done, right . . . oh, by the way, can you provide an update focused on these ques- tions at our meeting next week?” Moreover, some believe that funds would be better spent on additional interventions or even argue that evaluations are just a bureau- cratic mechanism for show. The perception is that the outcomes of the process are so obvious that it is not necessary to conduct an evaluation (Cady & Milz, 2015; Cady et al, 2010). In this case, you can choose a less rigorous approach that will not only give you some general guidance for the intervention but also help persuade the skeptics about the need for an evaluation. Selecting an Evaluation Strategy Evaluations can take place at a single level or across multiple levels, and this is often determined by the tradeoff of the compet- ing demands. This multi-level nature of evaluations has been originally adopted in the field of training and development, based on two prominent models: Kirk- patrick’s Levels of Evaluation (1998) and Phillips’ Return on Investment (1996). As shown in Table 1, there are five levels Table 1: Levels of Evaluation with Low and High Rigor Options Level Focus High Rigor Example Low Rigor Example I Attitude: How satisfied are people? A validated survey with established reliability measures and limited open-ended questions for qualitative analysis. Three questions on a flip chart with a couple of them scaled and a third open-ended question. II Knowledge: What do people know? Administer a test that addresses key concepts, information, and policies related to the initiative. Ask questions in an open forum about the key aspects of the initiative and make notes of what you hear. III Behavior: What are people doing? Conduct behavioral observations of people; identify the frequencies of specific desired behaviors related to the initiative. Administer a short questionnaire asking people to self-report their actions (verbal assessment also acceptable). IV Impact: What has been achieved? Compare specific key performance indicators before, during, and after the initiative has been implemented. Gather reports from a short survey, emails, and meetings with examples of what has been achieved. V Return: How much money has been generated versus spent? Conduct a formal ROI analysis with key personnel reporting on verified costs (e.g., waste, errors, and cycle time) and the financial gains from the intervention. Calculate a verifiable ROI. Provide documented examples of best practices. Conduct a pseudo ROI analysis with key personnel reporting on estimated costs (e.g., waste, errors, and cycle time) and gains from the intervention. Calculate a SWAG (serious wild ass guess) ROI with anecdotal evidence. Time & Money P ro ve & Im p ro ve Figure 1. The Paradox of Competing Demands in Evaluating OD Interventions OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 49 No. 1 201752 of evaluation that progress from assess- ing attitudes at Level I up to assessing the Return on Investment at Level V. Kirk- patrick’s Evaluation Model was originally introduced in a trade journal, and was later published in his book titled Evaluat- ing Training Programs (1975). Then, J.J. Phillips’ (1997) built on the Kirkpatrick’s model by adding a fifth level: the Return on Investment (ROI) framework. These two perspectives have been integrated and applied to a variety of change initiatives (Phillips, Phillips, & Ray, 2015; Russ-Eft et al., 2008), and we recommend that OD professionals include these approaches in their toolkit for the evaluation and inter- vention design process. The two frame- works will provide you with the common language that is often used throughout organizations among leaders and manag- ers alike. In Figure 2, we propose that you begin your evaluation design process with iden- tifying the competing demand of purpose, namely the desire to prove and improve the intervention. Then, ascertain the availability of time and money to implement the evalua- tion. Figure 2 provides the options you can choose from with regard to the amount of rigor. For example, if you find yourself in need of both proving and improving the intervention, then it is recommended that you use all five levels of evaluation. If you have unlimited time and money, you are in a position to provide the highest level of rigor in your assessment. However, as we have discussed, this is typically not pos- sible. While the tools for data analytics are available, the staffing and related analytical costs are still considerably high (BI-Survey. com, 2015; Microstrategy, 2014). Rigor influences how formal and planned an evaluation is, thus impacting the validity and reliability of the results. In addition, the scope of the evaluation can change from examining the participants’ experiences to verifying the intervention’s impact on the organization. Next, we will walk through some scenarios using Table 1 as a guide to help you decide the level of evaluation. Then, Figure 2 provides further examples on the ways to conduct less rigor- ous evaluations when there are limitations on time and money. Let’s start with a scenario in which you want to both prove and improve a team-level mediation intervention. When conducting an evaluation with high rigor, the scope is the most invasive and extreme; it involves higher costs with a formal sur- vey to assess reactions (Level 1), a test on the mediation model being used (Level 2), and the monitoring of the mediation practices utilized (Level 3). The evaluation also requires the evidence for supporting high-leverage improvements while also proving the degree of impact, such as the frequency of mediations (Level 4), and a well- documented ROI (Level 5). These measures attempt to answer the following questions, for example: » How effective was the team mediation intervention? » How can it be more effective? » What difference has it made? » What errors have been averted? » How much cost has been saved? » What revenues have been improved? All five levels of evaluation are to be conducted in a formal and valid fashion by trained research professionals. Now, let’s consider a situation where you find yourself in need of prov- ing whether the intervention worked as intended; however, you do not want to improve the intervention for the future. While the evaluation aims at assessing the changes in operations and behaviors, the focus is on the direct impact of the inter- vention. In the case of the team mediation intervention, this might involve assessing the mediation practices utilized (Level 3) and the number of mediations conducted or the amount of time to resolution (Level 4). These measures would be taken before, during, and after the intervention implementation. The lowest level of evaluation, before there is no evaluation required at all, is the scenario where you do not want to prove whether the intervention worked, yet you need to improve it for future applications. In this evaluation strategy, you would con- duct Level 1, 2, and 3 evaluations. Here you Ti m e & M o n ey Hi ye s yes yes no no no Prove? Improve? All Levels (1–5) Middle Levels (3–4) Low Levels (1–3) No Eval Needed Improve? Lo Figure 2. Evaluation Strategy Decision Tree When conducting an evaluation with high rigor, the scope is the most invasive and extreme; it involves higher costs with a formal survey to assess reactions (Level 1), a test on the mediation model being used (Level 2), and the monitoring of the mediation practices utilized (Level 3). The evaluation also requires the evidence for supporting high-leverage improvements while also proving the degree of impact, such as the frequency of mediations (Level 4), and a well-documented ROI (Level 5). 53What We Can Learn from Evaluating OD Interventions: The Paradox of Competing Demands BI-Survey.com BI-Survey.com examine the specific intervention’s impact on individuals’ perceptions and behaviors. For example, you might assess reactions to the team mediation (Level 1) and check if the mediation model has been properly understood (Level 2). You might use three questions on a flip chart to assess the sat- isfaction level, and ask them to write down the components of the mediation to check the learning outcomes. Within all of these strategies, you may need to conduct a less rigorous evaluation providing a rough understanding of how to improve the intervention by gathering information with limited resources in a shorter time period. For example, you may walk around the organization taking note of changes, conduct an informal poll during a meeting, and seek personal inputs about the perceived impact of the inter- vention (Table 1). Leaders may be asked to estimate the approximate cost savings and revenue improvements, thereby estimating a pseudo-ROI. Summary and Reflections The process of evaluating interventions is about determining whether the path you are on has been the most effective strategy efficiently executed for the system you are in. In turn, this will influence how you move into the future. The fundamental premise of a good evaluation, as consistent with the principle of the Gestalt Theory of OD, is self-awareness on a large-scale. Self-awareness serves as the starting point of the whole energizing action cycle in the Gestalt Group Cycle (Zinker, 1980); to be able to figure out the future path, people and the whole systems must be aware of themselves. Likewise, as in the notion of collective consciousness, group aware- ness can act as a unifying force for taking ownership in determining how to move forward together (Tsoukalas, 2007). The models presented here provide a framework for considering the competing demands and the trade-offs to be made. Developing an effective evaluation strategy is subtle, and grey areas are manifold. For example, imagine you are working on the decision tree model (Figure 2) and it sug- gests that an informal SWAG (serious wild ass guess) evaluation is the best option with Levels 4 and 5, because time and money are limited. Is this “bad”? We say “no.” The reason is two-fold. First, getting leaders to slow down and think through the questions necessary to evaluate an OD intervention is important. For example, a venture capitalist conducts valuations using internal rates of return (IRR), which are based on critical assumptions. The value of these invest- ments often dwarfs the costs of most OD interventions; and, it is interesting to note that IRR calculations are made with some SWAG. Similarly, engaging leaders in the analysis of the intervention’s impact is about creating conscious and more mind- ful decisions on the ways to improve the organization. Second, if the leaders paying for the intervention get feedback from cred- ible peers that the intervention resulted in a meaningful return on the investment, they will deem the feedback a valid data point. While this belief is a perception, it is helpful to know key stakeholders’ collective reality in order to figure out the next steps for organizational change efforts. In short, evaluations do not happen in a perfect world; there are always compromises that must be made. The bottom line is this: if you can achieve the intended purpose of the evalua- tion, then you have found the balance with the paradox of competing demands. You may find that your desired evaluation strat- egy differs significantly from those you are serving. As a result, go back to the drawing board and rethink what is most important to you, which may require renegotiating expectations with key leaders and other stakeholders. In closing, the evaluation of OD interventions supports the development of a learning organization, and this is where a consultant as an intervener can play an important role in helping the organization in service or disservice of itself. In provid- ing the system with a better understanding of itself through rigorous evaluations, the system will change its thinking paradigm and move toward a more intentional way of self-organizing (Nevis, 2013). When the system begins to change its thinking para- digm, the learning has begun and “action learning” occurs. This shift in thinking and learning is what will lead to new orga- nizational habits that result in long-term sustainability. References BI-Survey.com (2015). How companies benefit from big data. Retrieved from http://bi-survey.com/big-data-benefits Boje, D.M., & Henderson, T.L. (Eds.). (2014), Being quantum: Ontological storytelling in the age of antenarrative. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Butler, J., Scott, F., & Edwards, J. (2003). Evaluating organizational change: The role of ontology and epistemology. Journal of Critical Postmodern Organiza- tion Science, 2(2), 55–67. Cady, S. H., Auger, J., & Foxon, M. (2010). Situation evaluation. In W. Rothwell, J. M. Stavros, & R. I. Sullivan (Eds.), Prac- ticing organization development: A guide for leading change (3rd ed., pp. 363–376). The bottom line is this: if you can achieve the intended purpose of the evaluation, then you have found the balance with the paradox of competing demands. You may find that your desired evaluation strategy differs significantly from those you are serving. As a result, go back to the drawing board and rethink what is most important to you, which may require renegotiating expectations with key leaders and other stakeholders. OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 49 No. 1 201754 BI-Survey.com http://bi-survey.com/big-data-benefits San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Cady, S. H., & Milz, S. A. (2015). Evaluating organizational transformation. In W. Rothwell, J. M. Stavros, & R. L. Sullivan (Eds.), Practicing organization develop- ment: Leading transformation and change (4th ed., pp. 195–210). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Career Trends (2016, July 12). 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Steve Cady, PhD, is a professor, author, speaker, and consultant. He is a graduate faculty mem- ber in the Bowling Green State University Master of Organiza- tion Development Program. Cady is the co author of The Change Handbook, author of Stepping Stones to Success and PBS DVD titled Life Inspired. He is also the Chief Editor and Curator for the BKpedia Change & Innovation Collection. He can be reached at [email protected] Joo-Hyung Kim is an MBA can- didate at Bowling Green State University. She earned her bachelor’s degree in Business Administration from Korea University. Her research interests include judgment and decision making, emotion, and applicant attraction. She can be reached at [email protected] 55What We Can Learn from Evaluating OD Interventions: The Paradox of Competing Demands http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologycareerprofiles/p/iopsychcareers.htm https://blog.dol.gov/2015/03/15/the-10-fastest-growing-jobs/ http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologycareerprofiles/p/iopsychcareers.htm https://blog.dol.gov/2015/03/15/the-10-fastest-growing-jobs/ http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologycareerprofiles/p/iopsychcareers.htm https://blog.dol.gov/2015/03/15/the-10-fastest-growing-jobs/ http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologycareerprofiles/p/iopsychcareers.htm https://blog.dol.gov/2015/03/15/the-10-fastest-growing-jobs/ http://www.strategy-business.com/article/00344?gko=10921 http://www.strategy-business.com/article/00344?gko=10921 https://www.microstrategy.com/Strategy/media/downloads/about-us/microstrategy-bi-survey-13.pdf https://www.microstrategy.com/Strategy/media/downloads/about-us/microstrategy-bi-survey-13.pdf https://www.microstrategy.com/Strategy/media/downloads/about-us/microstrategy-bi-survey-13.pdf https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/09/15/executive-order-using-behavioral-science-insights-better-serve-american https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/09/15/executive-order-using-behavioral-science-insights-better-serve-american …