Fluent Essays

provide a comparison and contrast of the two concepts Chapter 8 Constitutions and Constitutional Design  Leaders of the transition from apartheid at the adoption of South Africa’s democratic constitution, May 1, 1996. From left to right in front row: F. W. de Klerk (president 1989–1994), Cyril Ramaphosa (current president), Nelson Mandela (president 1994–1999), and Leon Wessels. Author: J. Tyler Dickovick; Jonathan East IN THIS CHAPTER CASES IN CONTEXT  •   •   •   •  Consider the following passage: We, the people of South Africa, Recognise the injustices of our past; Honour those who suffered for justice and freedom in our land; Respect those who have worked to build and develop our country; and Believe that South Africa belongs to all who live in it, united in our diversity. We therefore, through our freely elected representatives, adopt this Constitution as the supreme law of the Republic so as to Heal the divisions of the past and establish a society based on democratic values, social justice and fundamental human rights; Lay the foundations for a democratic and open society in which government is based on the will of the people and every citizen is equally protected by law; Improve the quality of life of all citizens and free the potential of each person; and Build a united and democratic South Africa able to take its rightful place as a sovereign state in the family of nations. May God protect our people. Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika. Morena boloka setjhaba sa heso. God seën Suid-Afrika. God bless South Africa. Mudzimu fhatutshedza Afurika. Hosi katekisa Afrika. This passage is the preamble to the South African constitution passed in 1996, which established the foundational laws and was intended to form the basis for democracy in the country after decades of racial discrimination and white-only rule known as apartheid. One of the functions of constitutions can be to express the values of a society, especially those relating to the unity and aspirations of the people. The South African charter was a major step in creating a “New South Africa” based on equality and respect for the dignity of the country’s peoples (even if it certainly did not solve all the country’s problems with racism and inequality with the stroke of a pen). The preamble addresses this aspiration and notably concludes with an expression translated into six of the country’s major languages. These aspirations may vary from place to place: the lengthy introductions to China’s and Iran’s constitutions, for example, document the history of the revolutionary movements that gave rise to the regimes currently in power. The United States too has a famous preamble in its Constitution of 1787: We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, and most others like it, also does more than express the country’s ideals in writing. It is a very specific legal document that creates a design for the country’s formal political institutions, including the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. It also addresses the division of power between a central government and the provinces (as they are called in South Africa, which are akin to the states in the United States). With regard to judiciaries in particular, the South African constitution established a very important power of constitutional interpretation: judicial review. Judges were given the authority to rule which laws are consistent with the constitution, and which are not. The South African judiciary even ruled on whether the Constitution itself was constitutional, evaluating the text, determining what was adequate and proper and what was not. It accepted much of the text submitted in 1994 but sent the Constitution back to its drafting body, the Constituent National Assembly, to clarify some issues and rewrite others. In this chapter, we examine constitutions, the questions of whether and how they separate power between levels of government, and whether they are interpreted by judiciaries. We leave the discussion of the constitutional roles of legislatures and executives to   and  , where we treat those two branches of government individually. The issues related to constitutions and constitutional interpretation matter because, in most modern societies, constitutions establish many of the formal organizational features of the state and thus are keys to understanding politics. This chapter begins our examination of formal government institutions1, which are the structures and organizations that shape political behavior. The most obvious among these are the branches of government, two of which we explore in depth in subsequent chapters (the legislative,  , and executive branches,  ), and we also include political parties and interest groups that are a regular part of political life. Because the very foundation of political institutions is usually located in constitutions, we focus on these basic charters in this chapter and on the question of constitutional interpretation. How is political power divided among different governing institutions? Who rules on whether a law is constitutional? We take a close look at these issues and discuss both federalism and judiciaries, which are key elements of what constitutions say and what they do. Concepts We look first at concepts and definitions, outlining what we mean by constitutions, federalism and unitarism, and judiciaries. We then turn to types across different countries, to show how constitutions, constitutional design, and constitutional interpretation may vary from place to place. Constitutions Constitutions are the foundational charters and fundamental laws of most modern states. They elaborate the structure of government and express the founding principles of the regime. They are usually written documents passed by some sort of constitutional convention or constituent assembly that brings together many of a country’s leading political figures to hammer out the rules, laws, and structures needed to establish the basis for political life. This may occur at the founding of a country, as in the case of the United States, or when a new political regime is established, as has happened in France many times with the creation of new republics. Constitutions have come to symbolize the social contracts that societies make to “constitute” themselves in which “the people” confer authority to political actors in exchange for the establishment of order and a rule of law. The history of constitutions links closely to the idea of constitutionalism, or limited government, and is thus part and parcel of the story of the evolution of modern governance, and especially the emergence of democracy itself. As the basic founding laws of a society, constitutions are the set of rules and norms on which all other laws are based. In the United States, for instance, the Constitution is the ultimate point of political reference: even the president, as head of state, must act in accordance with its principles. Military enlistees and new citizens swear an oath of allegiance not to the president or the Congress but to uphold and defend the Constitution “against all enemies, foreign and domestic.” In a real sense, the Constitution is the foundation of the United States’ entire political system. In other countries as well, constitutions provide the basis for political unity, defining who and what the state is. These sets of laws outline the basic structure of the state and its patterns of governance, noting which branches of government have which powers and which responsibilities. In many cases, constitutions recognize or grant the basic rights of a country’s citizens, though these rights are not always guaranteed in every case. Indeed, even highly authoritarian regimes often make use of constitutions, regardless of whether rights are infringed in practice. French protestors against the constitution of 1958. In most cases, constitutions are written down in a single document that is subject to change by a process of amendment. Constitutions will not attempt to include the massive amount of statutes or laws that are needed to govern the society and establish its policies but will rather outline how these laws and policies are to be established and who decides on whether they are legitimate. They are, in short, the law above all other law, and the basis for political life. Constitutional Design Constitutional design refers to the features of the constitution that shape the powers of different political institutions. These features vary, though all constitutions define the basic structure of government. Constitutional design is important because it gives countries the chance to set up effective institutions. For example, countries such as Nigeria, Mexico, the United States, and India have all witnessed wrangling over how power should be established and how governments should be instituted. Starting out, it was unclear whether many new nations would survive or would prove vulnerable to disintegration, especially after the end of colonialism in these countries.2 The U.S. Constitution happens to have lasted to this day, but due to a variety of causes, other countries have re-crafted their constitutions and their constitutional designs on multiple occasions. After establishing one of the world’s earliest republics in the late 1700s, France has gone through numerous constitutions, with the current one dating only back to 1958. The question of federalism, or the separation of powers among different levels of government in a country, is often central to constitutional design. One of the key issues in the U.S. Constitution, for instance, was dividing powers between the central government and the states. Federalism is a political system in which multiple levels of government have some degree of autonomy in the same territory. Only in some countries do subnational governments (such as states, provinces, or regions) have constitutional protection or authority and a guarantee of autonomy from the central government. These may be called federal systems. For instance, the 27 states in Brazil or the nine provinces in South Africa have constitutional guarantees of their authority to govern and establish laws in their respective regions, even as the central government also has the right to do so. As the American president (and political scientist) Woodrow Wilson put it, “The question of the relation of the states to the federal government is the cardinal question of our constitutional system.” By contrast, the absence of federalism is unitary government or unitarism, in which the institutions and branches of the central government effectively wield political power. Most countries in the world are unitary. In these countries, local governments (such as towns, cities, or villages) will have some authority to shape local rules, but the laws made by these local governments are subject to central authority. As we shall see, federalism is not necessarily more or less democratic than unitarism, but its implications for how government works are numerous. Constitutional design usually also involves establishing a separation of powers among distinct branches, each with its own responsibilities and duties. Constitutions frequently begin by establishing a legislative branch responsible for formulating and passing laws. This may be called a parliament, a congress, or an assembly, or may be given any number of other names, as we examine in the chapter on legislatures ( ). The executive branch ( ) is the other portion of the government that is usually elected, at least in democratic regimes, and the powers and functions of the executive branch are routinely outlined in a constitution as well. For both of these branches, constitutions will often outline the procedure by which representatives are chosen, in addition to the powers they hold and duties they must perform. Constitutions also often address the structure and power of the judicial branch as well as the structure of the administrative apparatus.3 This delineates the separation of powers between the three “branches” of government: legislatures, executives, and judiciaries. We discuss legislatures and executives in full   and  , respectively, as noted previously), though these are also clearly elements of constitutional design. Judiciaries are branches of government that have particular importance in how constitutions are interpreted. The principal duty of the judiciary is to preside over cases in courts. This implies the power to interpret the laws put into effect by the other branches of government, but the extent of the judiciary’s power to interpret (and even strike down) laws varies from one country to another. In some countries, judiciaries have considerable powers of constitutional interpretation, while in other countries, they do not rule on whether laws are constitutional. The principal distinction is the strength of judicial review, which refers to the power of constitutional courts to determine the legality of laws. These two features—the extent of federalism and the respective roles of the branches of government—are central to both constitutional design and constitutional interpretation. For the remainder of this chapter, we discuss variations in constitutions themselves, as well as the different ways constitutions are designed and interpreted. These variations are considerable, as we will see in the section that follows. Types As noted in the previous section, there are several ways countries differ in how their constitutions are designed and interpreted. In general, constitutions can be designed to be flexible and easily changed or rigid and difficult to change. A second issue is how the constitution is interpreted, and specifically whether the judiciary has the power to interpret the constitution. A third element is the degree of federalism in a constitution. Finally, we note that both democratic and authoritarian regimes have constitutions, and these may differ in some ways but may also look quite similar on paper. Flexible and Rigid Constitutions One of the central distinctions among different types of constitutions is how easily they can be changed. Many constitutions are designed to be relatively difficult to change. Amending them may require supermajorities in each chamber of the legislature (i.e., more than just a simple majority of votes) or approval by a number of the units of the federation—the states, provinces, or regions. Some constitutions, such as that of the United States, are even harder to change. An amendment to the U.S. Constitution requires a two-thirds vote in each of the two houses of Congress, followed by approval of three-fourths of the states’ legislatures. It has been amended only twenty-seven times since its passage, and only seventeen times since 1791. At the other end of the spectrum are highly flexible constitutions that are easy to change, at least nominally. The most obvious case is those that can be changed by a simple majority of the legislature. The Constitution of the United Kingdom is one of the most flexible, at least according to the law. This is because in the British system, the Parliament is sovereign, as discussed in the next section: if a majority of the legislature passes a law, that law is by definition constitutional. This flexibility relates to another unique feature of the British constitution. Today, nearly all countries in the world have a single written document (which can be amended) that defines the parameters of the political system. The principal exception to the rule of written constitutional charters is the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom does not have a single constitutional text, but rather, several documents are deemed to have constitutional significance as the country has developed its political system over the course of many centuries. The major constitutional documents include the Magna Carta of 1215, but also a range of other laws of great significance and stature such as the Bill of Rights of 1689, which emphasized certain limitations on the power of the monarchy; and the Acts of Settlement of 1701, which established patterns of succession to the throne. In this sense, it may be said that the United Kingdom has a “written” constitution but one that relies on a range of written documents rather than a single one. What is considered constitutional in the United Kingdom is also determined by acts of Parliament and precedents in common law. This makes the constitution adaptable as laws and cultural practices change (New Zealand, a former British colony, similarly relies on a set of major acts of Parliament that established the constitutional basis for the country’s governance). This does not, however, mean that the United Kingdom has no constitution; in fact, it has one of the longest traditions of constitutional government in the world. Apart from the United Kingdom’s constitution, which is based on many documents and traditions, and the U.S. Constitution, which is a brief framework with a handful of amendments over the years, there are many written constitutions that differ in style and form. As societies have grown more complex, constitutions in more recent years have often grown longer and more intricate as they attempt to balance a range of different interests, institutions, and ideas. The South African Constitution, mentioned at the top of the chapter, is an example. So too is the Brazilian Constitution of 1988, as noted in the concluding “Thinking Comparatively” section of this chapter. Constitutions regularly recognize the rights of citizens or grant rights to the citizenry. In the case of the U.S. Constitution, many fundamental rights were actually passed as a set of amendments to the original document, known as the Bill of Rights. Since then, however, many contemporary constitutions (including the South African and Brazilian examples) have incorporated significant rights into the main text from the very beginning, which is likely one cause of constitutions becoming much lengthier over time. That is, articles in the original constitutional texts of many countries specify civil rights and civil liberties, political rights, and social rights (such as access to certain public services). Of course, rights may be well protected or disrespected in practice, regardless of their inclusion in the document. For example, the Brazilian case is one where constitutional rights and protections have been promised, yet the government has been unable to deliver in some areas such as public services. In such cases, the constitutional guarantees may be more aspirational in nature, even in a democratic country. We return later in the chapter to the question of constitutional protections in practice when we look at how constitutions may be somewhat different for authoritarian systems. Separation of Powers: Judicial Review and Parliamentary Sovereignty In many (but not all) countries, courts have the power to decide some constitutional issues and rule on whether a law passed by the legislature is constitutional. If constitutional courts find that the law is not consistent with the constitution or basic laws of a society, they may strike down the law. In these countries, constitutional courts are usually separated from the civil and criminal court systems. In systems with separation of powers, this is the “check” that the judiciary has on the legislature. Constitutional courts are not the only type of courts. Local courts are for local disputes and for claims involving local laws, including arrangements over property (such as buying and selling houses), issues of marriage and divorce, traffic violations, and some criminal offenses.4 Constitutional courts are reserved for major constitutional issues about whether a law passed by the government is valid. As noted earlier in the chapter, the process by which national courts examine the constitutionality of law is called judicial review. Most constitutions provide for a process of judicial review in which constitutional courts have judges who rule on the constitutionality of law. Judicial review is the central political power of the judiciary, and it occurs when judges examine the constitutionality of a law passed by the legislature. In countries with judicial review, the constitution is seen as the supreme law of the land, and it is the role of the courts to verify that laws passed by the legislature are consistent with the constitution. Judicial review generally operates with a high court or “supreme court” at the pinnacle of the judicial system that serves as the final arbiter of constitutional law. This may be built on top of a system that has “lower courts” in different states, provinces, or localities around the country.5 The high court is composed of a select number of established jurists or justices. (In the United States, there are nine justices on the Supreme Court, nominated by the president and approved by the Senate for life terms.) In systems with judicial review, the decisions of such courts are often final and can be overturned only by subsequent judicial decisions or by legislatures amending the constitution itself. This system of constitutional interpretation by judges is regularly a source of debate and disagreement in many countries, as discussed in the “Causes and Effects” section later in the chapter. The most prominent examples of countries without constitutional courts and judicial review are those where the constitutionality of law is determined by the parliament. In such cases, the judicial system is composed of courts that rule on the merits of specific cases in accordance with the laws that exist, without questioning the legitimacy of those laws. Of course, here too there may be some interpretation of what the laws mean, but the court is not empowered to strike down or alter laws passed by the legislature. The United Kingdom is the most noteworthy example. In the United Kingdom, there is no high court empowered to rule on most matters of law; the few minor exceptions relate to the question of how some powers have been decentralized to the regions of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and this has been true only since 2009.6 As mentioned previously, constitutional interpretation in the United Kingdom generally follows the doctrine known as parliamentary sovereignty. This means that if the legislature—often called the Parliament—passes a law, that law is, by definition, constitutional. The legislating body is the highest political and legal authority in the land. In theory, the British Parliament could easily overturn long-standing parts of the British constitution at a moment’s notice. Delegates to Brazil’s Constituent Assembly celebrate the passage of the country’s constitution in 1988. Why has this not happened? Why has there not been massive zigzagging in terms of what the constitution means, from one election to the next, as new parties take power and lose power? In reality, the British Parliament refrains from overturning the founding laws of the polity because it follows national norms, values, customs, and traditions. Much as American political parties would probably not envision getting rid of major elements of the Constitution, even if they had the supermajority they would need, so too does the British system exhibit constitutional stability from one elected government to the next. It may seem self-evident that demanding procedures have kept the U.S. Constitution from being amended more frequently, but the United Kingdom shows that procedure is not the only determinant of how and when constitutions change. Consensus in the society matters, as do traditions, habits, customs, and values. CASE IN CONTEXT: No Constitution? No Supreme Court? Constitutionality in the United Kingdom  Federalism and Unitarism The distinction between federal and unitary countries (and countries in between) is a fundamental difference in the way power is divided in a society. As discussed earlier, federal countries have a system in which power is separated between the central government and some subnational governments that are partly autonomous. In unitary systems, power is located at the center. In unitary states, the center may delegate certain powers to local, regional, state, or provincial governments, but it retains the constitutional or legal authority to reverse its decision at virtually any time. FEDERALISM The question of ruling large, complex territories is perennial, but the idea of federalism as a solution came more recently.7 The United States was an early leader in establishing federalism (along with Switzerland). Led by James Madison, considered the “Father of the Constitution” and a principal author of The Federalist Papers, the nation’s founders developed an intricate political compromise designed to satisfy both the larger and smaller of the thirteen original colonies that came together to create the new nation. As the colonies became states in the union, the American system reserved considerable rights to those states that the central government (called the “federal government”) could not infringe on. They backed up these rights in the form of a Senate where each state was to have equal representation, regardless of population. This idea of compromise between central power and regional (or state or provincial) power came to appeal in a range of contexts. Other countries did not adopt the American system in its entirety, but many saw virtue in the general approach to reconcile national and subnational interests. Today, many federal countries around the world have intricate sets of interacting institutions. Originally designed to unify diverse territories while preserving subnational autonomy, federal institutions now do more than simply offer a way to ensure that nations do not fall apart: they divide governing power and allow some laws and policies to vary from place to place within a country, even as some national laws (and the national constitution) take precedence everywhere inside the borders.8 Federalism is now seen by some as a strategy to ensure more than stability and protection, as it may also promote democratic inclusion, as well as capture the benefits of economic unity. For these reasons, many of the world’s largest countries either are federal or have prominent features that resemble federalism. Although only about twenty of the nearly two hundred total countries in the world are considered federal, these twenty countries account for a large portion of the world’s population. Many of the largest and most populous countries are federal, including the world’s four most populous countries after China: India, the United States, Indonesia, and Brazil. Other federal countries include Nigeria, which has the largest population of any African country, and Pakistan, Russia, Mexico, and Germany, which are some of the largest countries in their respective regions of the world. Using a relatively inclusive definition designed to capture virtually any country that might be considered federal, we have constructed Map 8.1. Map 8.1 Federal systems around the world (in yellow). There are debates about whether many of the countries shaded in Map 8.1 are reliably federal (such as Spain and Pakistan). Several institutional elements and historical features may suggest otherwise, and federal countries do not always respect real autonomy for subnational units. Conversely, other countries may have some federal features yet remain unitary states, as is the case with China, where provinces have gained economic and political autonomy relative to the central government in recent years. China shows that some countries can seek the benefits of decentralized government without necessarily establishing federalism. Federal systems may be defined as those where subnational governments have constitutional guarantees of some power and autonomy in their own jurisdictions, as well as constitutional protections from infringement on the part of the central government. In practical terms, virtually all federal countries share other characteristics: an upper legislative chamber defined in the constitution with territorial representation for the states/provinces/regions that provides them with political protection, and full legislative and executive branches at the subnational level.9 While the specific definitions may vary, it is clear that federalism is intended to ensure representation for the subnational level in national decision making. INSIGHTS: Federalism: Origin, Operation, Significance UNITARISM Most countries in the world are unitary states, in which the central government is the only level of government specified in the constitutional charter. In unitary states, power is not constitutionally divided between layers of government but resides exclusively in the central … RESEARCH PAPER OR PRESENTATION: FINAL ASSIGNMENT INSTRUCTIONS More specifically, for the Research Paper or Presentation: Final Assignment you will compare and contrast the role and impact of the concept of Federalism with the rise of what Dickovick and Eastwood call “Juristocracy.” Your analysis should 1) provide a comparison and contrast of the two concepts, 2) provide examples from the United States (for Federalism) and at least one country that has been influenced by the ideas of “Juristocracy,” and 3) evaluate both concepts and their influence in light of Biblical principles and a Judeo-Christian worldview. Research Paper If you elect to write a research paper for this assignment, the text of this research paper must be 7 pages (not including title page, reference page, and any appendices). This paper must be in current Turabian format and must contain a minimum of 3 scholarly sources in addition to the course textbooks. You must include citations to a sufficient number of appropriate sources to fully support your assertions and conclusions. (This assignment draws heavily from the assigned readings for this module, and you are expected to illustrate your understanding of those sources.) Criteria Ratings Points Content Analyzes the Material 35 to >30.0 pts Advanced All elements of the assigned topic are clearly and completely addressed in light of applicable page limits/presentation length limits (5–7 pages or 10–12 minutes of student-spoken audio). Analyses flow in a logical and effective manner, address all elements of the assignment thoroughly and reach the nuances of the issues raised. Complex issues are navigated with precision, clarity and detail. 30 to >20.0 pts Proficient Major elements of the assigned topic are discussed in a meaningful way but the paper/presentation would benefit from additional clarity, depth, or detail. Analyses are generally well constructed. Complex issues are recognized. 20 to >0.0 pts Developing Some elements of the assigned topic are mentioned but the discussion is incomplete, unclear, superficial, too general or otherwise does not meet expectations. Analyses are general and lacking in depth. Complex issues and nuances are overlooked. 0 pts Not Present Assigned elements are not discussed. 35 pts Content Organization 35 to >30.0 pts Advanced The paper/presentation is focused and well organized. The paper/presentation has a clear thesis, and a clear and substantive introduction and conclusion. The paper/presentation effectively uses headings and subheadings as appropriate to focus and deepen analyses. 30 to >20.0 pts Proficient The paper/presentation is reasonably well organized and follows a logical path from idea to idea and section to section. The paper/presentation includes an adequate introduction and conclusion. 20 to >0.0 pts Developing The paper/presentation is in need of additional organization and clarity. Ideas and/or sections of the paper/presentation either do not flow logically or are in need of fundamental improvement. The paper is lacking an adequate introduction and/or conclusion. 0 pts Not Present The paper/presentation lacks meaningful organization and the paper lacks and introduction and conclusion. 35 pts Research Paper or Presentation: Final Grading Rubric | PSCI600_D01_202130 Criteria Ratings Points Content Evaluation, Synthesis and Adequate use of Sources 35 to >30.0 pts Advanced Sources, concepts and ideas are evaluated critically and synthesized in a manner that moves beyond restatement and makes a valuable contribution to the assigned topic. 30 to >20.0 pts Proficient Sources are used correctly and support the paper’s analyses and conclusions. Concepts and ideas are understood and linked in a reasonable way that supports the paper’s conclusions. Paper reflects a good familiarity with the major ideas but would benefit from greater critical evaluation and syntheses. 20 to >0.0 pts Developing Some sources are used but not critically evaluated and/or not used in an effective manner. Paper/presentation would benefit from more substantive use of sources, more appropriate reliance on sources, and/or better skill in evaluating, synthesizing or applying ideas, concepts, or sources. 0 pts Not Present Sources are not used; Ideas and concepts from sources are not evaluated or synthesized. 35 pts Structure Mechanics 15 to >13.0 pts Advanced No grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors are present. Voice and person are used correctly and consistently. Writing/oral presentation is precise. Word choice is appropriate. 13 to >8.0 pts Proficient Few grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors are present. Voice and person are used correctly. Writing style/oral presentation is sufficient. Word choice is adequate. 8 to >0.0 pts Developing Several grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors are present. Voice and person are used inconsistently. Writing style / oral presentation is understandable but could be improved. Word choice is generally good. 0 pts Not Present Numerous spelling, grammar, or punctuation errors are present. Voice and person are misused. Writing style / oral presentation is difficult to understand. Word choice is poor. 15 pts Research Paper or Presentation: Final Grading Rubric | PSCI600_D01_202130 Criteria Ratings Points Structure Turabian Format Elements 15 to >13.0 pts Advanced Citations and format are in current Turabian style. Title page, reference page, etc. are correctly formatted. Paper is double-spaced with 1-inch margins and written in 12 point Times New Roman font. If a presentation rather than a paper is chosen, the presentation is properly formatted and of high quality. 13 to >8.0 pts Proficient Citations and format are in current Turabian style with few errors. Title page, reference page, etc. are present with few errors. Paper is double-spaced with 1-inch margins and written in 12 point Times New Roman font. If a presentation rather than a paper is chosen, the presentation is properly formatted and of acceptable quality. 8 to >0.0 pts Developing Citations and format are in current Turabian style though several errors are present. Title page, reference page, etc. are included though several errors are present. Paper is double-spaced, but margins or fonts are incorrect / Presentation is acceptably formatted. 0 pts Not Present Citations are not formatted correctly. Title page, reference page, etc. are not included or not formatted correctly. Paper is not double-spaced, margins are incorrect, or font is incorrect / Presentation is not properly formatted. 15 pts Structure Research Elements 15 to >13.0 pts Advanced High quality primary and secondary sources are utilized in a mature and effective manner. Research effectively incorporates multiple nuanced viewpoints of complex issues. Adequate number of sources (at least 3) are used. Complete and accurate bibliography is provided. Arguments are correctly and effectively supported with research. 13 to >8.0 pts Proficient Primary and secondary sources of acceptable and appropriate nature and quality are utilized. Research reflects multiple viewpoints of complex issues. Adequate number of sources (at least 3) are used. A complete and accurate bibliography is provided. Arguments are acceptably supported with research. 8 to >0.0 pts Developing Fewer than the requisite number of required primary and secondary sources of acceptable and appropriate nature and quality are utilized. Research does not reflect multiple viewpoints of complex issues. An incomplete or inaccurate bibliography is provided. Arguments are tangentially supported with research. Arguments incorporate research but often include or rely upon personal opinion without appropriate support. Sources are, at times, not used appropriately. 0 pts Not Present Appropriate sources are not used or sources are lacking entirely. Arguments are not supported with research. Opposing viewpoints are dismissed or ignored. Bibliography is incomplete or missing. 15 pts Total Points: 150 Research Paper or Presentation: Final Grading Rubric | PSCI600_D01_202130