Fluent Essays

Prior to beginning this assignment, read Chapter 3 in the course textbook. You may want to review Chapters 1 and 2 in your course textbook for assistance, too. Review the guidelines found in Table 1.1 (OD realities and misconceptions) to establish the reasoning for OD interaction. In addition, pay special attention to the criteria for determining the validity of an OD problem. Understanding the process is crucial to becoming a successful OD consultant. Watch the following videos, What Should Consultants Do? (Links to an external site.) and Handling a Complainer, to gain perspective on responsible consulting. There are many ethical responsibilities within the field of the OD consultant. Suppose that you are just beginning your practice as an external OD consultant and an organization approaches you to help them address an issue or change within their company. Before accepting the job, it is important for you to determine whether the problem is an actual OD issue or an internal matter that is better addressed within. Explain the process for evaluating an organizational condition to determine if the action required is OD-related. Define the specific criteria for determining the core of the problem and the potential solution. After assessing the request, there are times that you will find the problem is not an OD concern. Prepare a response to the organization stating why the problem is not OD, why you are not the right person for the job, and what options they might have to remedy their problem. Once your research is complete, begin preparing your paper. The paper must be four to five pages of content (excluding the cover and reference pages). You must include a minimum of three scholarly, peer-reviewed, or credible sources that provide qualified information related to the role of the OD practitioner. In addition, include the course textbook as a scholarly resource to support theory and concepts related to OD strategy. Remember that Wikipedia is not a qualified resource. Use the Scholarly, Peer-Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.) document for additional guidance. During the construction of the paper, be specific and refrain from making assumptions. Describe all aspects of the search components listed below. In your paper, Explain the process to determine the validity of the problem. Define specific criteria for OD consulting. Prepare an appropriate response to the organization regarding their issue. The Responsible Consulting paper Must be four to five double-spaced pages in length (not including title and references and formatted according to APA Style (Links to an external site.) as outlined in the Writing Center’s APA Formatting for Microsoft Word (Links to an external site.). Must include a separate title with the following: Title of paper Student’s name University of Arizona Global Campus Course name and number Instructor’s name Date submitted Must utilize academic voice. See the Academic Voice (Links to an external site.) resource for additional guidance. Must include an introduction and conclusion paragraph. Your introduction paragraph needs to end with a clear thesis statement that indicates the purpose of your paper. For assistance on writing Introductions & Conclusions (Links to an external site.) as well as Writing a Thesis Statement (Links to an external site.), refer to the Writing Center resources. Must use at least three scholarly, peer-reviewed, or credible sources in addition to the course text. The Scholarly, Peer-Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.) table offers additional guidance on appropriate source types. If you have questions about whether a specific source is appropriate for this assignment, please contact your instructor. Your instructor has the final say about the appropriateness of a specific source for a particular assignment. To assist you in completing the research required for this assignment, view this University of Arizona Global Campus Library Quick ‘n’ Dirty (Links to an external site.) tutorial, which introduces the University Library and the research process, and provides some library search tips. Must document any information used from sources in APA Style as outlined in the Writing Center’s APA: Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.). Must include a separate reference page that is formatted according to APA Style as outlined in the Writing Center. See the APA: Formatting Your References List (Links to an external site.) resource in the Writing Center for specifications. Carefully review the Grading Rubric (Links to an external site.) for the criteria that will be used to evaluate your assignment. BUS370.W2A1.04.2021 Description: Total Possible Score: 6.00 Explains the Process to Determine the Validity of the Problem Total: 1.00 Distinguished - Thoroughly explains the process to determine the validity of the problem. Proficient - Explains the process to determine the validity of the problem. Minor details are missing. Basic - Minimally explains the process to determine the validity of the problem. Relevant details are missing. Below Expectations - Attempts to explain the process to determine the validity of the problem; however, significant details are missing. Non-Performance - The explanation of the process to determine the validity of the problem is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions. Defines Specific Criteria for Organizational Development (OD) Consulting Total: 1.00 Distinguished - Thoroughly defines specific criteria for OD consulting. Proficient - Prepares a mostly appropriate response to the organization regarding their issue. Minor details are missing. Basic - Partially defines specific criteria for OD consulting. Relevant details are missing. Below Expectations - Attempts to define specific criteria for OD consulting; however, significant details are missing. Non-Performance - The response to the organization regarding their issue is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions. Prepares a Response to the Organization Regarding Their Issue Total: 1.00 Distinguished - Prepares a thorough and appropriate response to the organization regarding their issue. Proficient - Prepares a response to the organization regarding their issue. Minor details are missing.  Basic - Prepares a limited and somewhat appropriate response to the organization regarding their issue. Relevant details are missing. Below Expectations - Attempts to prepare a response to the organization regarding their issue; however, significant details are missing. Non-Performance - The preparation of a response to the organization regarding their issue is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions. Written Communication: Control of Syntax and Mechanics Total: 0.50 Distinguished - Displays meticulous comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains no errors and is very easy to understand. Proficient - Displays comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains only a few minor errors and is mostly easy to understand. Basic - Displays basic comprehension of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains a few errors which may slightly distract the reader. Below Expectations - Fails to display basic comprehension of syntax or mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains major errors which distract the reader. Non-Performance - The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions. Written Communication: APA Formatting Total: 0.50 Distinguished - Accurately uses APA formatting consistently throughout the paper, title page, and reference page. Proficient - Exhibits APA formatting throughout the paper. However, layout contains a few minor errors.  Basic - Exhibits limited knowledge of APA formatting throughout the paper. However, layout does not meet all APA requirements.  Below Expectations - Fails to exhibit basic knowledge of APA formatting. There are frequent errors, making the layout difficult to distinguish as APA. Non-Performance - The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions. Intro, Thesis, & Conclusion Total: 0.50 Distinguished - The paper is logically organized with a well-written introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion. Proficient - The paper is logically organized with an introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion. One of these requires improvement. Basic - The paper is organized with an introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion. The introduction, thesis statement, and/or conclusion require improvement. Below Expectations - The paper is loosely organized with an introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion. The introduction, thesis statement, and/or conclusion require much improvement. Non-Performance - The introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion are either nonexistent or lack the components described in the assignment instructions. Written Communication: Page Requirement Total: 0.50 Distinguished - The length of the paper is equivalent to the required number of correctly formatted pages.  Proficient - The length of the paper is nearly equivalent to the required number of correctly formatted pages.  Basic - The length of the paper is equivalent to at least three quarters of the required number of correctly formatted pages. Below Expectations - The length of the paper is equivalent to at least one half of the required number of correctly formatted pages.    Non-Performance - The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions. Written Communication: Resource Requirement Total: 1.00 Distinguished - Uses more than the required number of scholarly sources, providing compelling evidence to support ideas. All sources on the reference page are used and cited correctly within the body of the assignment. Proficient - Uses the required number of scholarly sources to support ideas. All sources on the reference page are used and cited correctly within the body of the assignment. Basic - Uses less than the required number of sources to support ideas. Some sources may not be scholarly. Most sources on the reference page are used within the body of the assignment. Citations may not be formatted correctly. Below Expectations - Uses an inadequate number of sources that provide little or no support for ideas. Sources used may not be scholarly. Most sources on the reference page are not used within the body of the assignment. Citations are not formatted correctly. Non-Performance - The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions. Powered by 1Organization Development: An Introduction to the Field, Its History, and Its Practices PATCHARIN SAENLAKON/iStock/Getty Images Plus Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • Describe the field of organization development in terms of its purpose, philosophy, and definitions. • Summarize the history of organization development, including the key practices of each period. • Explore the roles, values, competencies, professional associations, and ethics of an organization development practitioner. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. More than 2,500 years ago, the Greek philosopher Heraclitus observed, “Change is the only con- stant” (Mark, 2010, para. 3). This sentiment is still true today. From fluctuations in weather and seasons to the growth and aging of your own body, change is not an option—it is a fundamental principle of existence. What changes have you experienced recently? Perhaps you became ill or recovered from an illness, enrolled in or dropped out of a class, were promoted at work or changed jobs, ended a relationship or got married, or simply changed your mind about some- thing. What changes have you experienced at your university or organization? You may have been affected by new curriculum, revised policies, layoffs, or downturns in business. As these examples suggest, sometimes change is intended, but just as often it is unanticipated or even unwanted. For example, few of us welcomed the global economic downturn in 2007–2009, which required us to adjust our budgets and behaviors to cope. Laws change, corporations fail, disruptive technologies emerge. Were these changes planned or unplanned? Unplanned change refers to changes that were unexpected, like the loss of a job, surprise suc- cesses, the sudden death of a loved one, a failed relationship, natural disasters, or new opportu- nities. What unplanned changes have been the most significant in your life? Organizations also experience unplanned changes that affect individuals, teams, the organization, and sometimes even the community, such as layoffs, company mergers, promotions, demotions, and organi- zational restructuring. See Assessment: Change Readiness to evaluate your own openness to change. Assessment: Change Readiness Bebop was about change, about evolution. It wasn’t about standing still and becoming safe. If anybody wants to keep creating they have to be about change. —Miles Davis (1926–1991), U.S. jazz musician and composer Embracing change is not always easy, but it rewards us with new experiences, new insights, and new creations. Most people think they are open to change. But are they? Few of us would welcome layoffs, mergers, demotions, or ogranization restructuring, and most would endure them grudgingly and experience stress as they unfolded. Changes such as promotions, challenging responsibilities, and new colleagues are more welcoming, yet they can also be stress inducing. When change comes, do you find yourself curios and even exhilarated, or are you angry, frustrated, and worried that you are unprepared? Visit the following link to complete an assessment about your readiness for change: https://www.ecfvp.org/uploads/tools/files/2_- change_readiness_assessment_0426111.pdf. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Consider This Planned change refers to shifts that are intended and prepared for, such as getting an education, learning new skills, moving to a new city, starting a new hobby, or finding a new job. Over the past few years, what significant changes have you planned? Have you been successful at implementing these changes? Section 1.1What Is Organization Development? 1.1 What Is Organization Development? Like individuals, organizations are continually required to adapt to a staggering number and variety of changes at a considerable pace if they are to thrive. These changes include global- izing markets, emergence of the knowledge economy, advancing technology, growing cus- tomer diversity, shifting customer preferences, economic upturns or downturns, natural disasters, unanticipated competition, and abrupt reorganizations or changes in manage- ment. To navigate such shifts, organizations engage in planned change, an intentional or strategic process in which they take action to solve problems or overcome challenges. Examples of planned change in organiza- tions include intentional shifts in products or markets, mergers and acquisitions (at least for the controlling company), prear- ranged reorganizations, expansion into new regions or countries, and new product development. Unplanned change occurs when unanticipated circumstances, such as unstable markets, unexpected competition, surprise mergers, or sudden attrition, require shifts in strategy, products or ser- vices, personnel, finances, or other aspects of organization life. Although individuals often manage planned change independently, organizations frequently seek help so that the planned change is systematic, effective, and lasting. This practice is known as organization development (OD). On its simplest level, OD is a process of help- ing individuals, groups, and organizations become more effective through planned change grounded in the theory and practice of OD. The OD process can be facilitated by either inter- nal or external consultants. Defining OD No single one of the many definitions of OD is universally accepted. Beckhard (1969) offered an early definition that is now considered classic: “Organization development is an effort (1) planned, (2) organization-wide, and (3) managed from the top, to (4) increase organization effectiveness and health through (5) planned interventions in the organization’s ‘processes,’ using behavioral-science knowledge” (p. 9). Beckhard’s (1969) definition points to several key aspects of OD: 1. It is a planned, intentional process to address a problem or issue that needs to change. 2. It is organization wide, based on an understanding that the organization is an inte- grated system and that a change made in one place may have ramifications in others. 3. Top management provides buy-in and support of the OD effort. 4. OD activities address both the effectiveness and the health of the organization by boosting its performance while making it a more humane place to work. 5. It is an intentional process, grounded in evidence derived from the behavioral sciences. Shannon Fagan/Taxi/Getty Images Plus Organization development (OD) helps organizations cope with change on a global scale. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.1What Is Organization Development? You can see Beckhard’s points in other popular definitions of OD, such as this one from Cum- mings and Worley (2009): “Organization development is a system wide application of behav- ioral science knowledge to the planned development, improvement, and reinforcement of the strategies, structures, and processes that lead to organization effectiveness [emphasis added]” (pp. 1–2). Similarly, Anderson (2012) advocated, “Organization development is the process of increasing organizational change through the use of interventions driven by social and behavioral sci- ences knowledge [emphasis added]” (p. 3). In other words, OD is an intentional change process that involves the total system. It takes an evidence-based approach to planning change that improves the effectiveness and health of the organization. Moreover, employees and management are personally invested in making the organization more effective. Consultants who work with organizations to identify and implement appropriate interventions practice OD. These practitioners of OD are often con- sidered change agents for their internal or external role in facilitating change in partner- ship with key organization stakeholders in ways that solve problems, develop organization capacity, implement new policies or practices, and potentially transform the organization’s functionality, productivity, climate, or culture. OD Consultants and Clients Many organizations rely on professionals to steer them through complex and changing envi- ronments with planned responses to problems and challenges. These professionals are known as organization development (OD) consultants. Also called OD practitioners, human resource developers, human resource managers, or learning and development professionals, OD consultants are skilled at assessing problems, providing direct feedback to the organiza- tion, and influencing change. OD consultants help lead organizations through interventions that are based on careful study and preparation and are grounded in the behavioral sciences. the systematic study of human behavior such as psychology, sociology, or anthropology, that attempts to make generalizations about how humans will act in certain situations. The key stakeholder in the OD process is known as the client. Sometimes there is more than one type of client. For instance, the person who initially contacts the OD consultant may provide intro- ductory information about the problem but not be the owner of the problem or the person paying for the services. It is important for OD consultants to correctly identify the client—an issue we will cover in Chapter 3. When Is OD Warranted? Beckhard (2006) noted there are certain conditions that warrant an organization engaging in an OD effort. These include when a client or organization wants to 1. change a managerial strategy; 2. develop an organization that better meets the needs of employees, the organization, and the environment in which the organization works (markets, community, and so forth); 3. change cultural norms; © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.1What Is Organization Development? 4. change structure and roles; 5. build intergroup collaboration; 6. improve communications; 7. improve planning; 8. tackle issues related to mergers; 9. address motivation issues among the work force; and 10. better adapt to a changed environment. When an organization embarks on OD, the ultimate product of the process is to implement an intervention, or act to solve a problem or respond to an opportunity in ways that improve the situation. Interventions When people decide to make a change, they usually do something specific. For instance, if you decided to rein in your spending, you might establish a budget, create a spreadsheet to track it, switch to electronic banking, visit a financial planner, or change your saving habits. When organizations plan a change, for example, to improve inclusion in their culture, they might conduct a climate assessment; provide diversity, equity, and inclusion training; or cre- ate accountability measures among managers. Actions like these that are taken to improve a situation are known as interventions. In OD, an intervention is a corrective action made to resolve problems or address challenges. Interventions in OD focus on tackling organization challenges such as low morale, quality defects, shifting markets, new management, leadership problems, or strategic planning. OD Values Most of us want to do meaningful work in an organization that has pleasant working condi- tions, with colleagues who are respectful, where we feel included, and where our work is recognized and rewarded. OD seeks to honor the individual and advance organization goals. This commitment to benefit all organizational stakeholders is grounded in the philosophy of humanism. Humanism is the belief in the inherent good of human beings, their capacity to reach full potential in life, and their right to be treated fairly and humanely. “The OD value is not about change but about change that makes people better—humanistic values” (Marshak, Consider This Have you experienced an OD effort at an organization you have worked for? If so, what moti- vated it? Have these efforts included interventions? If so, what are some problems you have experienced and interventions you have made or experienced? © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.1What Is Organization Development? as cited in Wheatley, Tannenbaum, Yardley Griffin, & Quade, 2003, p. 4). OD experts herald OD’s humanistic values as the field’s distinguishing feature (Greiner & Cummings, 2004; Porras & Bradford, 2004; Wirtenberg, Abrams, & Ott, 2004), embracing the notion that “the individual has to gain in the long-term for the organization to gain in the long-term” (Por- ras & Bradford, 2004, p. 401). OD practitioners intend to do no harm when they engage with organizations. This is not always easy, as sometimes the goals of the organization seem counter to preserving humanity. Consider layoffs, for example. Layoffs are harmful to people losing their jobs, yet sometimes they are unavoidable in order to preserve the over- all well-being of the organization and protect other jobs. Implementing layoffs would be humane when ample notice is given, efforts are made to help affected employees find new employment, and expenses are covered during the transition with a reasonable severance package. OD consultants can help organizations ensure such humanistic practices are in place when change is difficult and painful. Wirtenberg et al. (2004) captured this sentiment: The need in organizations to manifest socially responsible values and cre- ate win–win business results has never been greater. OD is in an excellent position to seize the opportunity to build bridges, find common ground, and address organizational and cultural divides. (p. 479) If you are fortunate enough to work in an organization with a highly functioning OD process, you should observe an operation engaged in continual improvement for individuals, teams, and the organization itself. If your organization lacks these practices, it is never too late to implement changes that embrace them. As you read Case Study: Is Sparklite a Candidate for OD?, ask yourself if this company is engaging in humanistic practices. Consider This What practices have you experienced that would fall into the category of humanism? What others were contrary to the values of humanism? Case Study: Is Sparklite a Candidate for OD? Sparklite, a spark plug manufacturing plant, underwent a management change 6 months ago when John Stevenson became the plant manager. Stevenson replaced Al Smith, who was a beloved manager and had run the plant for 20 years. Smith was a hands-on manager. He was always willing to roll up his sleeves and work on a problem, whether it involved a machine in the plant or a conflict with a customer. He was not a micromanager; rather, he would work closely with the team to solve problems. He listened to input, whether from the janitor or (continued on next page) © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.1What Is Organization Development? Characteristics of OD As we have already learned, OD is a planned change process that is grounded in a humanistic philosophy. It also has the following key characteristics (Beckhard, 2006, p. 9). OD Is Systems Based OD interventions are planned with consideration for the whole organization as a system. Like medicine, OD intends to “first, do no harm.” Recall that the tenets of humanism require that OD benefit all stakeholders. This means, for example, that before implementing a change to workflow, the OD consultant would check to make sure the adjustments do not have a negative impact elsewhere in the organization. For instance, a workflow change might expose employ- ees to repetitive-motion injuries or make the workflow in another area unmanageable. Top Management Is Committed Effective OD secures management’s awareness of and commitment to the chosen intervention and its management from the very beginning. Employees look to management for approval Case Study: Is Sparklite a Candidate for OD? (continued) the vice president. He expected all management personnel to behave similarly. People who worked in the plant respected Smith and felt respected by him. Over time, a true community atmosphere evolved, and the plant was one of the highest performing in the company. Stevenson, on the other hand, spends a lot of time in his office, reading over production num- bers, talking on the phone, and holding meetings with his management team. Rarely does he go out onto the manufacturing floor and talk with employees or listen to their ideas. When one of his managers suggests, “It might be helpful if you spent more time getting to know our workers,” Stevenson barks, “That is what I pay the supervisors to do. My time is better spent on finding ways to cut costs and improve our margin.” Stevenson is very driven by numbers: When they are not good, he slams his fist on the table and demands that the next shift “pick up the slack.” It does not take long for the supervisors to become afraid of Stevenson and to quit coming to him with problems. The convivial atmosphere the plant had enjoyed for so many years quickly erodes into an atmosphere of fear. Soon, the plant’s performance begins to suffer. Morale sinks. Members of the management team begin applying for transfers to other locations. Longtime workers are exploring other employment options. This only makes Stevenson more frustrated, agitated, and frightening to the workers. One day, a corporate vice president comes for a plant tour and visit. It is immediately clear to her that the plant has taken a turn for the worse. She talks with several employees and can see that something has to change. Critical Thinking Questions 1. How aligned with humanism is the organization emerging under Stevenson’s leadership? 2. How might planned change play a role in turning things around at Sparklite? © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.1What Is Organization Development? and as an example, and it is imperative for organization leadership to visibly support any change effort. OD consultants play a key role in holding management accountable for demon- strating sustained and visible commitment to the OD change process. Usually, organizations will also identify an internal person to champion the change process and to hold employees and managers accountable for implementing the change. The Intervention Is Tied to the Organization’s Mission A key aspect of securing management commitment is helping leaders see how the OD initia- tive helps actualize the organization’s mission and aligns with its strategy. It is also impor- tant for employees to understand this connection. For example, in the Sparklite case study, the organization’s mission to produce quality products on a timely basis was facilitated by a collegial, collaborative atmosphere that was being eroded by Stevenson’s behavior. If an intervention were made to help Stevenson and other managers change their managerial style to a more participative one, everyone would have to understand and buy in to how the new behaviors would help the organization meet its mission. There Is Long-Term Commitment to Implementing the Intervention Although OD interventions can sometimes be relatively simple and quick to implement, they often require a long-term commitment, sometimes 2 to 3 years or more. Interventions that change work practices, beliefs, or standards do not succeed overnight. Making lasting organi- zation change needs long-term commitment and action from all levels of the organization. OD Has a “Bias for Action” Management guru Tom Peters, coauthor of In Search of Excellence, one of the best-sell- ing business books of all time, became famous for saying that effective organiza- tions have a “bias for action” (Peters & Waterman, 1982, 2004). This means that an organization engages in active decision making and moves quickly to action, rather than being caught in an incessant cycle of planning without action. Although OD implementation can take a long time, it is based on taking action, analyzing how the action is working, tweaking it, and repeat- ing the process for as long as necessary. Consider This Consider a large change made by your organization—perhaps a shift to a new database, mar- keting plan, or procedure. How long did it take? Make a list of a few changes you can recall and estimate how long they took. Chances are, the more complex changes required more time and resources. SeventyFour/iStock/Getty Images The goal of OD is to take timely, meaningful action to address problems, challenges, and opportunities within the organization. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.1What Is Organization Development? OD Focuses on Changing Attitudes or Behavior Lasting change occurs when people alter their ways of thinking and doing. This is why OD can be powerful and can also take a long time to implement. For example, when leaders experi- ence opportunities for leadership development and receive feedback that indicates they are not as effective as they believed, they usually engage in introspection and change. Becoming less autocratic may not happen overnight, but real, lasting change occurs as leaders experi- ment with new ways of thinking about their role as leaders and when they implement new behaviors, such as listening or including others in decision making. OD Tends to Incorporate Experiential Learning We will learn throughout this book that when people change, they learn new ways of thinking and doing. OD favors action; thus, interventions often create opportunities for employees to experience new ways to think and act. Can you recall a time when you participated in a change that prompted new learning? For example, when I participated in a leadership development initiative, I learned how to coach employees in a way that focused on helping them solve prob- lems on their own, rather than me giving them the answer. Although there was a chance to learn about coaching from books, I did not internalize it until there was an employee in front of me with a problem and I made a conscious effort to behave differently. OD Is Largely a Group Process Most OD is not done in isolation. Even when consultants make individual interventions such as providing training or coaching, the goal is usually to help the person function better with others. Similarly, changes in processes require that groups understand and collectively imple- ment the changes. As we will discover, the field of group dynamics and facilitation grew out of OD. Realities and Misconceptions About OD To better understand what OD is, it is useful to explore what it is not. Table 1.1 compares some common realities and misconceptions about OD. Table 1.1: OD realities and misconceptions OD realities OD misconceptions OD is a systematic process of planned change to address organization problems or issues. It follows the action research model (introduced later in this chapter). OD is not management consulting or performance improvement activities that focus on making specific expert, functional interventions that are disconnected from the organization system. OD is humanistic in that it seeks to improve orga- nizations through performance enhancements and improvements to people that make an organization a better place for all stakeholders. OD is not oriented toward processes that benefit only the organization and economic values of per- formance and productivity. OD is strategic, and its interventions include a range of activities. OD is not simply training and development initia- tives, although often these interventions are errone- ously prescribed to address problems. (continued on next page) © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.2The History of OD Table 1.1: OD realities and misconceptions (continued) OD realities OD misconceptions OD is a long-term commitment to change that requires buy-in at multiple levels. OD is not a short-term, quick fix for problems. OD interventions are customized to address needs specific to the organization and its goals. OD does not come with a one-size-fits-all set of interventions. Matching the right consultant with the problem is important for effective OD. The next section of this chapter examines OD’s origins and the interventions that have devel- oped over the past 70 years. 1.2 The History of OD If you work at a company, belong to a nonprofit board, participate in a professional organiza- tion, or are a member of a church, it is likely you have engaged in team-building exercises, filled out climate surveys, collected data about the organization, solved problems, developed talent, devised strategy, or sought to change the organization. These activities emerged dur- ing the historical evolution of OD, beginning in the 1940s. These interventions are discussed in chronological order in this section, which also introduces you to some key terminology used in the field. (Refer to Table 1.2 for a summary of OD’s historical development.) Table 1.2: Key interventions in the history of OD Date Originator(s) OD intervention Factors contributing to development Description 1940s Lewin T-groups and OD emergence Facilitators were debriefing a training when participants recognized that interper- sonal dynamics of the pro- cess were more powerful than the content of inter- vention itself. A group that discusses how members’ behav- iors affected the group and the group dynamics that emerged 1940s Trist and Bamforth Sociotechni- cal systems Highly functioning groups faltered when management changed the technology, and consultants began problem solving to understand why. The recognition that an organi- zation’s social (human) and tech- nical systems affect each other, espe- cially when either is changed (continued on next page) © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.2The History of OD Table 1.2: Key interventions in the history of OD (continued) Date Originator(s) OD intervention Factors contributing to development Description 1940s–1950s Lewin and Likert Action research and survey feedback The dawning understand- ing of the power of group reflection on problems and issues in the organization Action research is an iterative, col- laborative effort to study problems (research), take actions to resolve them, and conduct more studies to see if the fix worked. Survey research is used to gauge atti- tudes in organiza- tions, and issues are usually addressed using action research. 1960s Likert Participative management Emerged from increasing application of humanistic practices in organizations with the advent of prior OD interventions in the 1940s and 1950s Managers and leaders who listen to, respect, and seek input from employees 1950s–1970s Deming Quality of work life (QWL), total quality management (TQM) Struggling industrialized countries (e.g., United Kingdom and United States) looked to Japan for its high-quality manufacturing practices to become more competitive. QWL seeks to enhance sociotech- nical systems and employee well- being and empow- erment to make decisions. TQM is a process of continuous improvement. 1980s Schein Organization culture OD shifted its focus from individuals and groups to the organization itself, which bred an interest in how organizational atmo- sphere and tone (culture) affect its members. A pattern of basic assumptions that are invented, dis- covered, or devel- oped by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of adapta- tion to the external environment (continued on next page) © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.2The History of OD Table 1.2: Key interventions in the history of OD (continued) Date Originator(s) OD intervention Factors contributing to development Description 1980s–1990s Beckhard and Harris Planned and strategic change The dawning recognition by OD consultants that change and interventions were more effective and lasting when they advanced the organization’s strategy Linking planned change to the orga- nization’s strategy and goals 1990s Senge, Watkins, and Marsick Organization learning and the learning organization The shift from the industrial age to the knowledge age, and the need to encourage and facilitate learning and thinking Organization learning is focused on describing the nature and process of learning that occurs within an organization. An organization becomes a learning organization when learning is part of its strategy. The goal is to leverage learning to improve the organization. 2000s Various Contem- porary OD: Organization effectiveness (OE) and employee engagement OE is likely more of a change in verbiage than a substantive change in prac- tice. This terminology may be more palatable to top management because “soft” skills promoted by OD may not be as valued as other skills. Organizations seek … Organization Change 2 Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • Categorize change according to rate of occurrence, how it comes about, and scale. • Provide examples of personal and organizational interventions that represent developmental, transitional, and transformational change; first- and second-order change; and operational and strategic change. • Discuss the systems approach to change. • Describe three levels of change, including individual, group or team, and organization or system. • Compare and contrast five models of organization change. Lilkar/iStock/Getty Images Plus © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Write down the names of five highly successful companies today that were just as dominant 25 years ago. Are you able to think of five? Companies, like living organisms, tend to have a lim- ited life span. Very few remain competitive for more than a decade or two. Instead, as Newman (2010) pointed out, companies tend to lose their edge because they fail to innovate and change. As he put it, they become obsessed with competing in the present and lose sight of the future. Newman listed 10 examples: Blockbuster, Dell, Eastman Kodak, Motorola, Microsoft, Sears, Sony, Sun Microsystems, Toys “R” Us, and Yahoo. More recently, Aaslaid (2018) profiled 50 corporations that failed to innovate. Some new com- panies have been added to the defunct or nearly deceased list, including MySpace, Macy’s, Hum- mer, MapQuest, and Toys “R” Us. Kodak, a top film company in its day, is number one out of the 50, according to Aaslaid. Unfortunately, Kodak, which was dominant for more than a century, denied that digital photography was a threat, even though one of its own engineers, Steve Sas- son, invented the first digital camera in 1975! Kodak’s management chose to ignore the innova- tion because it was filmless, and Kodak sold film. The company was too fearful that releasing the invention would kill its market in film. Yet, the innovation appealed to a small fringe market, and it allowed the digital photography niche to become a disruptive innovation. Kodak filed for bankruptcy in 2012. Today, we hear about disruptive innovation, inventions or improvements made by a smaller company that unsettle the status quo and create new markets for products and services that were overlooked by larger, more established companies. Kodak even enlisted the help of the scholar who invented the term, Clayton Christensen (2000). But even though Kodak followed his advice to begin selling inexpensive digital cameras, the company had already fallen too far behind. Ho and Chen (2018) described the downfall of Kodak in the following way: “The resis- tance to change among middle managers, the culture of the company dominated by a strong belief as ‘Kodak meant film,’ and the hierarchical structure at Kodak led to failure in adopting the disruptive digital technology” (p. 353). Today, most of us use our cell phone, iPad, digital camera, and a variety of apps and websites to take, store, alter, print, and share photos—a real- ity Kodak failed to anticipate. Blockbuster is another famous failure, and perhaps forgotten in this age when stream- ing of entertainment is done from the com- fort of your couch, no longer requiring a video store with annoying late fees if you returned the physical video late. Blockbuster easily transitioned from VHS to DVD for- mats but failed to anticipate that content would become available via mail, vending machine rentals, video on demand, and video streaming. Netflix anticipated and adapted to this trend, however. Blockbuster became obsolete, closing hundreds of stores, accumulating debt, and struggling to regain its competitive edge. The past few years have seen other signifi- cant changes in long-term products and services. The rise of Uber and Lyft has caused disrup- tion in the traditional taxi service. Although Christensen does not view this change as disruptive, Photon-Photos/iStock Editorial/Getty Images Plus Blockbuster failed to anticipate change and could not compete with Netflix and other digital movie sources. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 2.1The Nature of Organization Change taxi drivers might disagree (Christensen, Raynor, & McDonald, 2015). Christensen, Raynor, and McDonald defined disruptive innovation as a product or service that comes in at the low end of the market and is not profitable, much like Amazon was when it first began distributing prod- ucts. Once these lower-priced disruptors gain a foothold and improve the lower end of the mar- ket to evolve products and services that customers are willing to pay top dollar for, the product eventually moves to the high end of the market, much like the Amazon Prime service offered today. It is challenging to convince an organization to change, particularly when things are going well, as things did for many years for both Blockbuster and Kodak. Even when companies recognize the need for change, the process is complex and challenging, and most efforts do not succeed. In fact, change often fails to meet its intended outcomes (Griffith, 2002; Kogetsidis, 2012; Self, Armenakis, & Schraeder, 2007). Some have estimated that 50\% of all change efforts fail (Quinn, 2011), and others estimate the failure rate even higher, at nearly 70\% (Balogun & Hope Hailey, 2004; Burnes & Jackson, 2011; Higgs & Rowland, 2000). Simply put, organizations are not very good at planning and implementing change. The purpose of this chapter is to explore organization change. We will identify a variety of types of change, discuss the systems approach to change, examine levels of change, and compare and contrast change models. Let us begin by considering the nature of change. 2.1 The Nature of Organization Change Change is the alteration or complete transformation of people, processes, products, and places. Change may be impermanent, transitional, and even reversible (such as moving to a new city, then moving home again) or permanent and transformational (such as getting a col- lege degree or experiencing the death of a loved one). Organizations, too, experience changes that can be subtle or transformational, temporary or permanent. Managing change effectively is considered a core competence of successful organizations (Burnes, 2004), yet it is difficult, because the rate of change outpaces our ability to keep up with it (Cameron & Green, 2015). Mastering change means you are learning (Hall & Hord, 2019). Consider This The podcast Spectacular Failures, on American Public Media, features some of the most spec- tacular business failures in history and how organizations could have avoided them. Listen to “Kodak Misses Its Moment”: https://www.spectacularfailures.org/episode/2019/07/15/ kodak-misses-its-moment. Analyze the episode based on whether or not the failure was related to inability to innovate and change. After listening to the podcast episode on Kodak’s failure, reflect on these questions: 1. Only a few decades ago, most people thought the idea of having personal computers in their homes was unrealistic. Today, most homes have multiple devices that handle per- sonal computing. Smartphones are a relatively new innovation, as are crowd-sourced services such as Uber or Lyft or digital assistants such as Alexa. When have you been resistant to a change that eventually became an innovation you depend on? 2. What could Kodak have done differently to avoid failure? © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 2.1The Nature of Organization Change Three Categories of Change There are several ways to classify change. Cao, Clarke, and Lehaney (2004) suggested change may be sorted according to organizational function, process, culture, or power distribution. Senior (2002) took a different approach, organizing types of change according to three cat- egories: (a) rate of occurrence, (b) how it comes about, and (c) scale. Rate of Occurrence Change happens at varying paces. Often, it is discontinuous and episodic. There is only one event or episode of change that makes a significant break from what has gone on before. Examples of discontinuous or episodic change might include a natural disaster, economic cycles of recession and expansion, or something more personal, like the onset of illness or a one-time change in work. The opposite of discontinuous or episodic change is continuous change—an ongoing pro- cess of shifts that can lead to significant alterations over time. People experience continu- ous change with technological innovations. Just a few years ago, the idea of a smartphone seemed far-fetched, yet today they are widely owned worldwide. Today, a smartphone can be used to monitor your home and pets, control your thermostat, track your fitness, locate family members, give directions, make dinner reservations, and schedule your groceries for delivery. Now, virtual, digital, or AI (artificial intelligence) assistants respond to natural voice commands and can tell the weather, play music by request, give directions, and offer advice. Robotics are also becoming more sophisticated with the rise of self-driving vehicles, programmable vacuum cleaners, industrial robots, and military robots. Continuous change is also prevalent in health care, where new drugs and treatments have prolonged life—at least in industrialized countries. How Change Comes About Another way of describing change is the way in which it occurs. Planning is one way that change comes about, particularly in OD. Change can also be unexpected, without planning. This might also be considered evolutionary change, which happens gradually and amounts to substantial shifts over time. Organizations may be involved in continuous improvement projects that gradually result in the adoption of new technologies and improved management practices such as participative management or organization learning. Change may also come about due to contingency—when organizations are forced to respond to unique, unanticipated variables that require special action and changes. For example, lack- ing a necessary raw material might require emergency alterations to product design. Another way change comes about is via choice. Organizations can choose what changes to make, such as deliberately deciding to change their leadership style. Change According to Scale The scale of change ranges from moderate ongoing changes at a department level to wholesale transformation of the organization culture. Revolutionary change, although much less com- mon than evolutionary change, represents a shock to the system that alters it permanently. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, created revolutionary change in Americans’ national identity and sense of safety, as well as significant changes in air travel. Economic © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 2.1The Nature of Organization Change downturns and their consequences are another type of revolutionary change. Almost every generation has experienced these challenges, which force innovation and change on individ- ual, organization, community, and national levels. Developmental, Transitional, and Transformational Change Change is one of those words that serves as a melting pot for scores of concepts and methods. Like the Inuit expression for snow (of which there are 20 or more shades of meaning), change means many different things to us (Ackerman, 1997, p. 45). Ackerman (1986) characterized change as developmental, transitional, or transformational. Developmental change is the growth and learning people experience as they acquire new skills, manage relationships, and take on new challenges. This type of change might involve problem solving, work assignments, conflict resolution, group dynamics, team building, meet- ing management, role negotiation, survey feedback, or training. When people make incremental steps toward a preferred status over a specified period, they are making a transitional change. Transitional change includes increasingly using a device such as a smartphone or gradually reducing calorie intake in order to lose weight. On an orga- nization level, transitional change might occur through reorganization, technology integra- tion, new product development, mergers or acquisitions, or globalization. Transitional change seeks to accommodate the new state while maintaining functionality during the conversion. Employees usually view this change as a disruption in standard oper- ating procedures. For example, a large public university recently switched the platform for its online courses. The change began with an informational campaign. Then, over two semesters, faculty could volunteer to be early adopters of the technology, using the new platform in courses with their students. During this phase, the early adopters provided feedback to the information technology department to help the entire organization fully transition to this new technology, and students were actively engaged in sharing feedback on the process. This strategy enabled the university to continue to deliver online learning in both the old and new formats while the technology was still in development. The entire university was then able to change to the new platform the following year, keeping the needs of learners and faculty at the forefront. A change that revolutionizes the organiza- tion and the ways its members think and act is known as transformational change. Transformational change is generally not reversible, because processes, behaviors, or beliefs become fundamentally different from those that characterized the previous state. Transformational change may be due to crisis, leadership transitions, culture or strategy alterations, dramatic shifts in mar- kets, or executive coaching. Some companies have managed to trans- form themselves and stand the test of time. Nikada/iStock Unreleased/Getty Images Plus Apple was able to transform itself into one of the most important technology innovators of our time. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 2.1The Nature of Organization Change IBM transformed from a mainframe computer company into one that makes software, per- sonal computers, and storage solutions. Apple started as a transformational company: In a market dominated by large, unsightly computers with complex software and awkward user interfaces, it introduced small, user-friendly Macintosh computers with aesthetically pleasing designs. Apple gained an ardent fan base, but as its competition caught on, it almost faded into obscurity. Then, under the leadership of Steve Jobs, the company underwent a series of changes that transformed our relationship with personal digital assistants via the iPad, iPhone, and iPod. Transformational change usually requires a charismatic leader who inspires others with a vision to achieve the desired change and willingness to take risks. First- and Second-Order Change Change in OD has been historically classified as first order and second order. When individu- als simply alter the intensity, frequency, or duration of a behavior but otherwise continue doing more or less what they have already been doing, they are making a first-order change. For instance, Jordan might decide to increase his exercise sessions from once to twice a week. Or a management team might decide to communicate monthly instead of quarterly about organization issues. First-order change is considered easy to implement and readily reversible. It does not require new learning, so it is usually impermanent. Jordan might decide to go back to once-weekly exercise sessions or to slack off on his regimen all together. Or management may later decide to communicate less frequently and implement that change easily. Early OD focused on first-order change that involved moderate adjustments to the organiza- tion, people, and processes. These interventions were largely individualistic; that is, practitio- ners modified aspects of individuals’ behavior, believing that these individual changes would translate into organization effectiveness. This mindset caused OD consultants to overlook the big-picture, systemic issues affecting the organization. As a result, early OD often was ineffective. Radical change that alters thinking, behaviors, or processes in irreversible ways is known as second-order change. This level of change requires a fundamentally different approach to issues, as well as new learning. It is generally not reversible and tends to be revolutionary or transformational. For example, rather than simply increasing his number of weekly exercise sessions, Jordan might meet with his doctor to assess his overall health, get up earlier each day to exercise, hire a personal trainer to work with him, consult a registered dietitian, take a healthy cooking class, or otherwise alter his mindset about exercise and health. Or, manage- ment might restructure or fundamentally change how it communicates, altering not only the frequency but also the content and delivery mode. The rise of online social networking offers an example of how organizations have new platforms for communicating. Platforms such as Consider This Can you recall a transformative leader who had charisma and inspired others? Who is this person? What did he or she do? © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 2.1The Nature of Organization Change instant messaging, Twitter, wikis, social networking, teleconferencing, email, and collabora- tion apps (e.g., Basecamp) have radically changed the way employers, employees, and cus- tomers communicate and have also made information timelier and more comprehensive. Contemporary OD, in its quest to change systems and cultures, focuses on second- order change. Examples include executive coaching that transforms a leader’s behav- ior, performance feedback that improves individual and group performance, leader- ship development that shifts how leaders think and act, group and team facilitation that revolutionizes interpersonal dynamics, diversity and multiculturalism initiatives that make the organization more inclusive, total quality management that improves products and services, life–work balance programs that reduce stress, or organization restructuring that changes work processes. Cathy Keifer/iStock/Thinkstock Just as a caterpillar transforms into a butterfly, so too is second-order change an irreversible process that alters ways of being. Operational and Strategic Change When an organization makes a shift that affects day-to-day functioning or operations, it is making an operational change. Examples include shifting the production schedule to accommodate supply of raw materials, hiring temporary workers to help cover a short-term increase in product demand, adding overtime to meet production numbers, problem solving around a quality issue, or creating a newsletter to communicate more effectively with employees. You might make operational shifts as a student to accommodate your studies dur-ing a particular semester such as adjusting your schedule to fit in more study time, hiring someone to help you clean your house or mow your lawn, or hiring a tutor to help you with a difficult statistics course. When the organization shifts its tactics to better achieve its mission and vision, it is making a strategic change. Strategic changes might include shifting the culture, management, and rewards systems to be more inclusive as a means of recruiting and retaining a diverse work force; firing an executive and bringing in a person with a track record for business turn- arounds; hiring workers to pursue a new market, product, or service; realigning people and resources to focus on a goal of becoming number one in sales or quality; or conducting a new marketing campaign to reach new customers. You might make strategic changes as a student by changing your major, switching advisors, or specializing in a certain area that will help you achieve your long-term professional and personal goals. Whether operational or strategic, change can be stressful, but strategies exist for coping with change. See Tips and Wisdom: Dealing With Organization Change. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 2.1The Nature of Organization Change Tips and Wisdom: Dealing With Organization Change Organization change comes in many forms: reorganizing, innovating, merging, downsizing, restructuring, recruiting, reinventing, acquiring, growing. How do you survive it all as an indi- vidual, team member, leader, and organization? Individual Strategies for Coping With Change • Expect change and plan for it, whether emotionally, professionally, or financially. • Notice the signs of approaching change: Pay attention to your organization and the envi- ronment. What do you notice, hear, and suspect? • Ask yourself: “What is the worst thing that could happen if change X occurs?” • Acknowledge that the only thing you control is yourself. How do you want to show up during the change? • Look for opportunities within the change to think differently, take on new responsibili- ties, and learn new things. • Find ways to relax both alone and with family and friends, especially if the change requires adding hours to the workweek. • Find healthy coping mechanisms. Avoid excess in food, alcohol, drugs, or other unhealthy coping behaviors. • Try to see the positives. Team Strategies for Coping With Change • Help others cope. It will help take your mind off the uncertainty and position you as a leader. • Talk about the change. How are people feeling about it? What are the hopes and fears about it? • How realistic are expectations about the change? • Identify ways to improve upon the change. • Seek training that helps you cope with and implement the change. • Ask your leaders for the assistance your team needs to accomplish its work. Leader Strategies for Coping With Change • Talk about the change with your team. • Acknowledge fears, new pressures, and demands. • Thank people. (continued on next page) © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 2.2General Systems Theory and Organization Change 2.2 General Systems Theory and Organization Change Chapter 1 established OD as a data-driven, humanistic process that seeks to foster the health and effectiveness of individuals, groups, the organization, and the broader community. OD is concerned with how change is integrated within an organization; that is, OD studies the ways in which an intervention in one area might affect another area. In other words, OD is concerned with the entire system. Freedman (2013) explained the value of this concern with the system: Organizations benefit when their leaders think and act systemically. Systems- oriented leaders consider organizational changes in the context of the total system and its interactions with its environment, rather than merely focusing on the primary element that attracts critical attention. By thinking and act- ing systemically, leaders focus their attention on the interactions among the interdependent parts and levels of their organizations . . . [making them] more likely to set realistic, comprehensive goals and establish viable strategies and plans for change. (p. 411) Many changes are localized when they affect only parts of the system. Medical specialties exist to treat parts of the body system. Yet treating disease in one system can be problematic when the impact on the body as a whole is not considered. This is also true in organizations in which a change might be made to a section of a manufacturing assembly line without con- sidering how it might affect manufacturing at other points along the line. Another example is when there is a change in raw materials that negatively affects the final product. OD is dif- ferent from other, more localized interventions, in that it takes the total organization system into consideration. Tips and Wisdom: Dealing With Organization Change (continued) • Don’t tolerate abuse, particularly in times of downsizing when the remaining workers may be driven by fear. • Troubleshoot with your employees as the change is implemented. • Advocate for your team with upper management. Organization Strategies for Coping With Change • Involve employees in the change process so they have a chance for voice and input. This will improve buy-in and communication. • Ensure leaders are well equipped to guide employees through the change. • Articulate expectations for how work is to be accomplished during the change. • Ask for employee commitment to the change—this means clearly explaining why the change is occurring and what to expect during the process. • Communicate regularly and widely about the change. • Recognize and reward employees for their efforts during and after the change. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 2.2General Systems Theory and Organization Change General Systems Theory Thinking and acting systemically about organizations originated with Ludwig von Berta- lanffy’s general systems theory, or GST (1950, 1968). Katz and Kahn (1978) called it a social systems approach. Also known as systems thinking, systems design, system dynamics, or holism, GST views the organization as a system of interconnected, interdependent subsys- tems. These subsystems might be people, technology, processes, the external environment, competitors, government, customers, and other stakeholders. GST views the organization as drawing inputs—raw materials that are entered into a system for throughput and output— from the outside world and transforming them into products and services. Von Bertalanffy (1950, 1968) contended that the primary purpose of an organization is sur- vival. He regarded organizations as perceived wholes with interdependent components that affect each other over time and help advance the system’s purpose. He identified systems as having five fundamental elements: 1. Semipermeable boundaries filter inputs and outputs across the organization’s bor- ders and separate its inside from its outside. Boundaries are not just physical spaces like the walls of a building, but also time and social constructions in terms of the organization’s beliefs, history, values, and leaders. Systems can also exist within sys- tems. For example, our solar system is distinct from the rest of the Milky Way galaxy and has changed over the billions of years of its existence. An organization today is distinct from that same organization last year. 2. Inputs represent the raw materials and resources needed from the external environ- ment for the organization to produce its outputs (products and services). Inputs include a qualified work force; market data pinpointing customer requirements for goods and services; prevailing political, economic, regulatory, technological, and social trends; competition; raw materials; capital; and information. 3. Throughputs entail the transformation of inputs into goods and services (outputs). Throughputs involve the line production of goods and services (e.g., an assembly line that manufactures vehicles) as well as support functions that indirectly contribute to the production of goods and services, such as human resource management or finance. A modification in throughput usually stimulates significant change in the organization. 4. Outputs represent the goods and services produced by the organization and demanded by customers. Ancillary outputs include wages and salaries employees spend and contribute to their local economies. Outputs also include waste, recycling, and dividends to stockholders. 5. Feedback loops provide information to the organization about how well the system components are meeting needs and expectations. Feedback loops are negative or positive and significantly affect a system’s behavior (Größler, Thun, & Milling, 2008). These loops might include relationships between subsystems or the relationship among each of the other system elements, as depicted in Figure 2.1. When the organi- zation falls out of equilibrium, feedback loops can help leaders figure out how to get the organization back on track. See Tips and Wisdom: Determining if a Change Is OD. © 2020 Zovio, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 2.2General Systems Theory and Organization Change Figure 2.1: Organization system This figure depicts a simple system model that shows how inputs, or resources, are introduced to a system and are transformed during the throughput process and released as outputs in the form of goods or services. The process is continuous, and the outputs inform future inputs through a feedback process. Consider your experience as a college student as an example of a system. Semipermeable boundaries might include the community where the university is situated and its …