Fluent Essays

Prepare: Before attempting this discussion, Read Chapter 4 in the textbook. Review the “Leadership vs. Management” section of Chapter 1 in the textbook. Watch The Perils of Confusing Management and Leadership video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dz8AiOQEQmk Reflect: Min 250 words Reflect on the sections, “Task Leadership,” and “Relationship Leadership” in Chapter 4 of the textbook. Simply put, leaders with a task style focus on goal accomplishment in their group, and leaders with a relationship style help followers feel comfortable in the group and in situations. Good leaders should be both task-focused and relationship-focused. With that in mind, think about leader who has influenced, improved, and inspired you positively (in any organization in society) and who has impacted positive outcomes and results. How did that leader balance achieving objectives with building relationships? Was that leader more task-oriented or relationship-oriented, or were they good in both areas? Also, reflect on The Perils of Confusing Management and Leadership  (Links to an external site.)video and what you have learned. Are leadership and management the same? Why or why not? What is the difference between being a leader or a manager? Write: In your initial discussion forum post, Compare leadership and management. Are they the same? Why or why not? Explain. Identify a leader who has inspired you and answer each of these questions: What did the leader accomplish that impressed or inspired you? Is the leader more task-oriented or relationship-oriented, or both? How did the leader use their task and relational behaviors to achieve results and positive outcomes? Were they more of a manager or a leader, or both? 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-40,navpoint-41,navpoint-42,navpoint-43,navpoint-44,navpoint-45,navpoint-46,navpoint-47… 1/20 Introduction Most people would agree that good doctors are experts at treating disease and, at the same time, care about their patients. Similarly, good teachers are informed about the subject matter and, at the same time, are sensitive to the personal lives of their students. In leadership, the same is true. Good leaders understand the work that needs to be done and, at the same time, can relate to the people who help them do the job. When we look at what leaders do—that is, at their behaviors—we see that they do two major things: (1) They attend to tasks, and (2) they attend to their relationships with people. The degree to which leaders are successful is determined by how these two behaviors are exhibited. Situations may differ, but every leadership situation needs a degree of both task and relationship behaviors. Through the years, many articles and books have been written on how leaders behave (Blake & McCanse, 1991; Kahn, 1956; Misumi, 1985; Stogdill, 1974). A review of these writings underscores the topic of this chapter: The essence of leadership behavior has two dimensions—task behaviors and relationship behaviors. Certain circumstances may call for strong task behavior, and other situations may demand strong relationship behavior, but some degree of each is required in every situation. Because these dimensions are inextricably tied together, it is the leader’s challenge to integrate and optimize the task and relationship dimensions in his or her leadership role. One way to explore our own task and relationship perspectives on leadership is to explore our personal styles (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5227) in these two areas. All of us have developed unique habits regarding work and play that have been ingrained over many years, probably beginning as far back as elementary school. Rooted in the past, these habits regarding work and play form a very real part of who we are as people and of how we function. Many of these early habits stay with us over the years and influence our current styles. In considering your personal style, it is helpful to describe in more detail your task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors. What is your inclination toward tasks and relationships? Are you more work oriented or people oriented in your personal life? Do you find more rewards in the process of “getting things done” or in the process of relating to people? We all have personal styles that incorporate some combination of work and play. Completing the Task and Relationship Questionnaire on pages 94–96 can help you identify your personal style. Although these descriptions imply that individuals have either one style or the other, it is important to remember that each of us exhibits both behaviors to some degree. Chapter Four Attending to Tasks and Relationships https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5227 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-40,navpoint-41,navpoint-42,navpoint-43,navpoint-44,navpoint-45,navpoint-46,navpoint-47… 2/20 4.1 Task and Relationship Styles Explained Task Style Task-oriented people are goal oriented. They want to achieve. Their work is meaningful, and they like things such as to-do lists, calendars, and daily planners. Accomplishing things and doing things is the raison d’être for this type of person. That is, these people’s reason for being comes from doing. Their in-box is never empty. On vacations, they try to see and do as much as they possibly can. In all avenues of their lives, they find meaning in doing. In his book titled Work and Love: The Crucial Balance (1980), psychiatrist Jay Rohrlich showed how work can help people organize, routinize, and structure their lives. Doing tasks gives people a sense of control and self-mastery. Achievement sharpens our self-image and helps us define ourselves. Reaching a goal, like running a race or completing a project, makes people feel good because it is a positive expression of who they are. Some clear examples of task-oriented people include those who use color codes in their daily planners, who have sticky notes in every room of their house, or who, by 10:00 on Saturday morning, have washed the car, done the laundry, and cleaned the apartment. Task-oriented people also are likely to make a list for everything, from grocery shopping to the series of repetitions in their weight-lifting workouts. Common to all of these people is their interest in achieving the goal and accomplishing the work. Relationship Style Relationship-oriented people differ from task-oriented people because they are not as goal directed. The relationship- oriented person finds meaning in being rather than in doing. Instead of seeking out tasks, relationship-oriented people want to connect with others. They like to celebrate relationships and the pleasures relationships bring. Furthermore, relationship-oriented people often have a strong orientation in the present. They find meaning in the moment rather than in some future objective to be accomplished. In a group situation, sensing and feeling the company of others is appealing to these people. They have been described by some as “relationship junkies.” They are the people who are the last to turn off their cell phones as the airplane takes off and the first to turn the phones back on when the airplane lands. Basically, they are into connectedness. In a work setting, the relationship-oriented person wants to connect or attach with others. For example, the relationship- oriented person would not be afraid to interrupt someone who was working hard on a task to talk about the weather, sports, or just about anything. When working out a problem, relationship-oriented people like to talk to and be associated with others in addressing the problem. They receive satisfaction from being connected to other people. They value the trust that develops in a group when relationships are strong. A task-oriented friend described a relationship-oriented person perfectly when he said, “He is the kind of person who stands and talks to you, coffee mug in hand, when you’re supposed to be doing something like mowing the lawn or covering the boat.” A relationship-oriented person doesn’t find meaning in “doing,” but instead derives meaning from “relating” or “being.” 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-40,navpoint-41,navpoint-42,navpoint-43,navpoint-44,navpoint-45,navpoint-46,navpoint-47… 3/20 Everett Collection Inc/Alamy Stock Photo 4.2 Leadership Snapshot: Ai-jen Poo, Director, National Domestic Workers Alliance Ai-jen Poo is the director of the National Domestic Workers Alliance (NDWA) and codirector of Caring Across Generations. She came to this work after observing the challenges of caregiving for her grandfather, who had suffered a stroke and was placed in a nursing home, sharing a room with six ailing, elderly people. “The place smelled like mold and death,” she wrote in her book, The Age of Dignity: Preparing for the Elder Boom in a Changing America (Poo, 2015, p. 2). Her grandfather died three months later. After graduating from Columbia University in 1996, Poo began organizing domestic workers. As a thought leader and social innovator, Poo sees the future effects of demographic trends such as a burgeoning elder population that will need care in the future. With the population of U.S. residents over the age of 85 expected to double in the next 20 years, more caregiving will be required. Poo sees how interconnected innovative family care solutions are with how we structure our future workplaces, and how the government will resource and regulate elder care. “Over and over again, at key turning points, we have invested in the infrastructure needed to thrive as a nation and to lead the safe, productive, and fulfilling lives that as individual Americans we expect to live,” Poo wrote. “And over and over again, these big ideas, and the momentum behind them, not only transformed our lives but also transformed our economy. In fact, in many cases, these investments were our economy, and most certainly saved our economy. An infrastructure for care may seem different from an infrastructure for railroads, highways, electricity, or the Internet. There are no trees to clear or wires to lay. Yet care is among the fundamental building blocks of society. For any of us, thinking about our most basic needs, care always comes first. There’s no need for the Internet, or even electricity, if there’s no way to feed, bathe, or clothe yourself” (Poo, 2015, p. 143). In her career, Poo demonstrates both relationship leadership and task leadership. To learn more about the needs of domestic workers, “she spent countless hours in parks, buses, and other gathering places for domestic workers, creating opportunities for these largely isolated women to share their experiences, guiding mistreated workers to appropriate legal channels, articulating the vital economic role of domestic workers, and developing with workers a framework of legal standards for the industry” (MacArthur Foundation, 2019). By listening to and caring about their experiences, Poo shows respect for domestic workers and acknowledges that their work has inherent dignity. “There are more than 2.5 million women in the United States who make it possible for us to do what we do every day, knowing that our loved ones and homes are in good hands. They are the nannies that take care of our children, the housekeepers that bring sanity and order to our homes, and the home-care workers that care for our parents and support the independence of our disabled family members,” said Poo (Fessler, 2018). Poo also builds relationships with the domestic workers, learning from them what their needs actually are, and connecting them with others in similar situations, to form a larger sense of identity and community. As the director of the NDWA, Poo has built a culture of trust and empowerment for women. Many of the organization’s staff work remotely, so twice per year they hold a retreat for all employees where they plan together, laugh together, and share stories. “An important part of the time together is connecting on a personal level, not because we need everyone to be friends, but to know one another’s context: Why are you here? What’s your story? Our personal journeys are an endless well of inspiration and resilience,” Poo explains (Fessler, 2018). Poo has built her activist work on this foundation of caring for others. Her task leadership is expressed in several ways. First, she has envisioned ways to organize domestic workers into an effective and unified voice for change. As the director of the NDWA, her core responsibility is to help the organization to reach its goals of educating the public about how domestic labor should be viewed and valued, raising the labor standards for all domestic workers, and training new leaders for the labor movement. Poo does this by staying focused on the mission of the organization, developing programs that support that mission, and hiring and equipping employees to assist in this work: “NDWA centers the voice and leadership of women of color in everything we do” (National Domestic Workers Alliance, 2016). 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-40,navpoint-41,navpoint-42,navpoint-43,navpoint-44,navpoint-45,navpoint-46,navpoint-47… 4/20 Second, Poo has organized workers to advocate for legislation that acknowledges and protects domestic workers’ rights. In 2010, New York enacted the Domestic Workers’ Bill of Rights, which entitles workers to overtime pay, one day of rest per week, protection from discrimination, and three days of paid leave per year—after a hard-fought seven-year legislative campaign led by Poo and a dedicated group of workers and advocates. The bill also drew support from an unlikely coalition of domestic workers, their employers, and other unions forged by Poo’s ability to leverage common interests across diverse groups (MacArthur Foundation, 2019). Poo received a “genius” grant from the MacArthur Foundation in 2014, and she was named one of Time’s 100 Most Influential People in the World in 2012 and one of Fortune’s 50 Greatest Leaders in 2015. While her task leadership has received the most recognition, the behavior Poo most attributes to her success is listening. “The best ideas from our organization have come from listening to our members,” she said. “And believe me—when you listen to women, especially to those who have been the least visible in society, you will hear some of the most extraordinary stories that represent the best of who we are as a nation. Listening is a practice; you don’t have to be a natural listener to be a good listener, and it’s something we can, and should, all learn to do” (Fessler, 2018). 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-40,navpoint-41,navpoint-42,navpoint-43,navpoint-44,navpoint-45,navpoint-46,navpoint-47… 5/20 4.3 Task and Relationship Styles in Practice In the previous section, you were asked to consider your personal style regarding tasks and relationships. In this section, we are going to consider the task and relationship dimensions of your leadership style. Figure 4.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-43#s9781544351636.i1361) illustrates dimensions of leadership along a task–relationship continuum. Task-oriented leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5263) , which appears on the left end of the continuum, represents leadership that is focused predominantly on procedures, activities, and goal accomplishments. Relationship-oriented leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5243) , which appears on the right end of the continuum, represents leadership that is focused primarily on the well-being of followers, how they relate to each other, and the atmosphere in which they work. Most leadership falls midway between the two extremes of task- and relationship-oriented leadership. This style of leadership is represented by the midrange area, a blend of the two types of leadership. Men and women use both styles of leadership. However, they are not perceived the same way by observers when they use these styles. Though the U.S. workplace has become more egalitarian in recent years, social expectations still linger for women leaders to be more relational or communal than task oriented (Eagly & Karau, 2002). In order to be seen as effective leaders, women need to be especially conscious of how they balance the two styles. Zheng, Surgevil, and Kark (2018) found that women leaders balance these styles through seemingly contradictory pairs of traits that are directly linked to relationship- and task-oriented behaviors: demanding (task) and caring (relational); authoritative (task) and participative (relational); and distant (task) and approachable (relational). Women leaders will often switch between the behaviors depending on the situation, including first using the relationship style to build trust and then using authoritativeness to accomplish goals. In addition, women leaders seek to reframe a relational orientation not as weakness but as a reflection of their confidence. By bringing relationship and task behaviors into coexistence, women are able to advance their performance, rally others toward common goals, align people’s interests, and build leader–follower relationships. As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, good leaders understand the work that needs to be done, as well as the need to understand the people who will do it. The process of “doing” leadership requires that leaders attend to both tasks and relationships. The specific challenge for the leader is to decide how much task orientation and how much relationship orientation is required in a given context or situation. Description (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-47#s9781544351636-fig-4-1-longdesc) Figure 4.1 Task–Relationship Leadership Continuum Task Leadership Task leadership behaviors facilitate goal accomplishment—they are behaviors that help group members to achieve their objectives. Researchers have found that task leadership includes many behaviors. These behaviors are frequently labeled in different ways, but are always about task accomplishment. For example, some have labeled task leadership as initiating structure (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5204) , which means the leader organizes work, defines role responsibilities, and schedules work activities (Stogdill, 1974). Others have labeled task leadership as production orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5237) , which means the leader stresses the production and technical aspects of the job (Bowers & https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-43#s9781544351636.i1361 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5263 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5243 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-47#s9781544351636-fig-4-1-longdesc https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5204 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5237 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-40,navpoint-41,navpoint-42,navpoint-43,navpoint-44,navpoint-45,navpoint-46,navpoint-47… 6/20 Seashore, 1966). From this perspective, the leader pays attention to new product development, workload matters, and sales volume, to name a few aspects. A third label for task leadership is concern for production (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5168) (Blake & Mouton, 1964). It includes policy decisions, new product development, workload, sales volume, or whatever the organization is seeking to accomplish. In short, task leadership occurs anytime the leader is doing something that assists the group in reaching its goals. This can be something as simple as handing out an agenda for an upcoming meeting or as complex as describing the multiple quality control standards of a product development process. Task leadership includes many behaviors: Common to each is influencing people toward goal achievement. As you would expect, people vary in their ability to show task-oriented leadership. There are those who are very task oriented and those who are less task oriented. This is where a person’s personal style comes into play. Those who are task oriented in their personal lives are naturally more task oriented in their leadership. Conversely, those who are seldom task oriented in their personal lives will find it difficult to be task oriented as a leader. Whether a person is very task oriented or less task oriented, the important point to remember is that, as a leader, he or she will always be required to exhibit some degree of task behavior. For certain individuals this will be easy and for others it will present a challenge, but some task-oriented behavior is essential to each person’s effective leadership performance. Relationship Leadership Relationship leadership behaviors help followers feel comfortable with themselves, with each other, and with the situation in which they find themselves. For example, in the classroom, when a teacher requires each student to know every other student’s name, the teacher is demonstrating relationship leadership. The teacher is helping the students to feel comfortable with themselves, with other students, and with their environment. Researchers have described relationship leadership in several ways that help to clarify its meaning. It has been labeled by some researchers as consideration behavior (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5175) (Stogdill, 1974), which includes building camaraderie, respect, trust, and regard between leaders and followers. Other researchers describe relationship leadership as having an employee orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5188) (Bowers & Seashore, 1966), which involves taking an interest in workers as human beings, valuing their uniqueness, and giving special attention to their personal needs. Another line of research has simply defined relationship leadership as concern for people (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5167) (Blake & Mouton, 1964). Within an organization, concern for people includes building trust, providing good working conditions, maintaining a fair salary structure, and promoting good social relations. Essentially, relationship leadership behavior is about three things: (1) treating followers with dignity and respect, (2) building relationships and helping people get along, and (3) making the work setting a pleasant place to be. Relationship leadership behavior is an integral part of effective leadership performance. In our fast-paced and very diverse society, the challenge for a leader is finding the time and energy to listen to all followers and do what is required to build effective relationships with each of them. For those who are highly relationship oriented in their personal lives, being relationship oriented in leadership will come easily; for those who are highly task oriented, being relationship oriented in leadership will present a greater challenge. Regardless of your personal style, every leadership situation demands a degree of relationship leadership behavior. As discussed earlier in this chapter, task and relationship leadership behaviors are inextricably tied together, and a leader’s challenge is to integrate the two in an optimal way while effectively adapting to followers’ needs. The U.S. Army has a saying: “Mission first, people always.” That means that the leader must nurture interpersonal and team relationships at all times in order to ensure that followers will be motivated to achieve their assigned goals or projects. Task leadership is also critically important in a company or an organization with a large number of newly hired employees or at a charter school with a cadre of new faculty members. It is also called for in an adult fitness class when the instructor is introducing a new https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5168 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5175 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5188 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5167 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-40,navpoint-41,navpoint-42,navpoint-43,navpoint-44,navpoint-45,navpoint-46,navpoint-47… 7/20 exercise. Or, consider the family members of a patient going home after a major heart surgery who have to learn how to change dressings and give medications; they want the health professionals to tell them exactly what to do and how to do it. In situations like these, the followers feel uncertain about their roles and responsibilities, and they want a leader who clarifies their tasks and tells them what is expected of them. In fact, in nearly every group or situation, there are some individuals who want and need task direction from their leader, and in these circumstances, it is paramount that the leader exhibit strong task-oriented leadership. On the other hand, it is also true that many groups or situations will have individuals who want to be affiliated with or connected to others more than they want direction. For example, in a factory, in a classroom, or even at a workplace like a fast-food restaurant, there are individuals who want the leader to befriend them and relate to them on a personal level. The followers are willing to work, but they are primarily interested in being recognized and feeling related to others. An example would be individuals who attend a cancer support group. They like to receive information from the leader, but even more importantly, they want the leader to relate to them. It is similar with individuals who attend a community- sponsored reading club. They want to talk about the book, but they also want the leader to relate to them in a more familiar way. Clearly, in these situations, the leader needs to connect with these followers by utilizing relationship-oriented behaviors. In addition to task and relationship behaviors, Yukl, Gordon, and Taber (2002) identified a third category of leader behaviors relevant to effective leadership, which they labeled change behaviors. Based on an analysis of a large number of earlier leadership measures, the researchers found that change behaviors included visioning, intellectual stimulation, risk- taking, and external monitoring. This category of behaviors has been less prominent in the leadership literature but still is a valuable way to characterize what leaders do. Change behaviors are closely related to leadership skills and creating a vision, which we discuss in Chapter 5, “Developing Leadership Skills,” and Chapter 7, “Creating a Vision,” of this book. Box 4.1 Student Perspectives on Task and Relationship Styles The following examples are personal observations written by college students. These papers illuminate the distinct differences task and relationship orientations can have in real-life experiences. Taken to Task I am definitely a task-oriented person. My mother has given me her love of lists, and my father has instilled in me the value of finishing things once you start them. As a result, I am highly organized in all aspects of my life. I have a color-coded planner with all of the activities I need to do, and I enjoy crossing things off my lists. Some of my friends call me a workaholic, but I don’t think that is accurate. There are just a lot of things I have to do. My roommate Steph, however, is completely different from me. She will make verbal lists for her day, but usually will not accomplish any of them [the items listed]. This drives me crazy when it involves my life. For example, there were boxes all over the place until about a month after we moved into our house. Steph would say every day that she was going to focus and get her room organized that day, but she’d fail miserably most of the time. She is easily distracted and would pass up the opportunity to get unpacked to go out with friends, get on Facebook, or look at YouTube videos. No matter how much Steph’s life stresses me out, I have learned from it. I’m all about having a good time in the right setting, but I am coming to realize that I don’t need to be so planned and scheduled. No matter how carefully you do plan, something will always go awry. I don’t know that Steph is the one who has taught me that or if I’m just getting older, but I’m glad I’m learning that regardless. —Jessica Lembke Being Rather Than Doing 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-40,navpoint-41,navpoint-42,navpoint-43,navpoint-44,navpoint-45,navpoint-46,navpoint-47… 8/20 I am an extremely relationship-oriented person. While I know that accomplishing tasks is important, I believe the quality of work people produce is directly related to how they feel about themselves and their leader. I had the privilege of working with fifth graders in an after-school program last year. There was a range of issues we dealt with including academic, behavioral, and emotional problems, as well as kids who did not have safe homes (i.e., no running water or electricity, physical and emotional abuse, and drug addictions within the home). The “goal” of our program was to help these kids become “proficient” students in the classroom. The task-oriented leaders in administration emphasized improving students’ grades through repetition of school work, flash cards, and quizzes. It was important for our students to improve their grades because it was the only way statistically to gauge if our program was successful. Given some of the personal trials these young people were dealing with, the last thing in my “relationship-oriented” mind was working on their academics. These young people had so much potential and wisdom that was stifled when they were asked to blindly follow … 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-13&content=all&clientToken=0fc25e38-8bed-81f4-31f5-cd69359ac4a6&np=navpoint-13 1/8 1.1 Leadership Explained At the outset, it is important to address a basic question: What is leadership? Scholars who study leadership have struggled with this question for many decades and have written a great deal about the nature of leadership (Antonakis, Cianciolo, & Sternberg, 2004; Bass, 1990; Conger & Riggio, 2007). (See Box 1.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-13#s9781544351636.i727) .) In leadership literature, more than 100 different definitions of leadership have been identified (Rost, 1991). Despite these many definitions, a number of concepts are recognized by most people as accurately reflecting what it is to be a leader. “Leadership Is a Trait” First, leadership is thought of as a trait. A trait (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5270) is a distinguishing quality of an individual, and defining leadership as a trait means that each individual brings to the table certain qualities that influence the way he or she leads. Some leaders are confident, some are decisive, and still others are outgoing and sociable. Saying that leadership is a trait places a great deal of emphasis on the leader and on the leader’s special gifts. It follows the often-expressed belief that “leaders are born, not made”— that leadership is innate rather than learned. Some argue that focusing on traits makes leadership an elitist enterprise because it implies that only a few people with special talents will lead. Although there may be some truth to this argument, it can also be argued that all of us are born with a wide array of unique traits, many of which can have a positive impact on our leadership. It also may be possible to modify or change some traits. Box 1.1 The Evolution of Leadership Leadership has long intrigued humankind and has been the topic of extensive literature for centuries. The earliest writings include philosophies of leadership such as Machiavelli’s The Prince (1531/2005) and biographies of great leaders. With the development of the social sciences during the 20th century, inquiry into leadership became prolific. Studies on leadership have emerged from every discipline “that has had some interest in the subject of leadership: anthropology, business administration, educational administration, history, military science, nursing administration, organizational behavior, philosophy, political science, public administration, psychology, sociology, and theology” (Rost, 1991, p. 45). As a result, there are many different leadership approaches and theories. While the words are often used interchangeably, approaches and theories are different conceptually. An approach (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5148) is a general way of thinking about a phenomenon, not necessarily based on empirical research. A theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5266) usually includes a set of hypotheses, principles, or laws that explain a given phenomenon. Theories are more refined and can provide a predictive framework in analyzing the phenomenon. For example, the spiritual leadership approach is a conceptualization of leadership that does not yet have a body of empirical research to validate it, while contingency leadership theory has a refined set of propositions based on the results of multiple research studies. Not unlike fashion, approaches to and theories of leadership have evolved, changed focus and direction, and built upon one another during the past century. To understand this evolution, a brief historical view https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-13#s9781544351636.i727 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5270 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5148 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5266 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-13&content=all&clientToken=0fc25e38-8bed-81f4-31f5-cd69359ac4a6&np=navpoint-13 2/8 can be helpful: Trait Theories The early trait approach (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5271) focused on identifying the innate qualities and characteristics possessed by great social, political, and military leaders such as Catherine the Great, Mohandas Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Moses, and Joan of Arc. Also called “Great Man” theories (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5200) , these studies of leadership traits were especially strong from 1900 to the early 1940s and enjoyed a renewed emphasis beginning in the 1970s as researchers began to examine visionary and charismatic leadership. In the 1980s, researchers linked leadership to the “Big Five” personality factors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5154) while interest in emotional intelligence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5186) as a trait gained favor in the 1990s. (For a discussion of emotional intelligence as a leadership skill, see Chapter 5, pages 101–113.) Behavior Theories In the late 1930s, leadership research began to focus on behavior—what leaders do and how they act. Groundbreaking studies by researchers at The Ohio State University and the University of Michigan in the 1940s and 1950s analyzed how leaders acted in small group situations. The behavior approach (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5153) hit its heyday in the early 1960s with Blake and Moulton’s (1964) work exploring how managers use task (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5262) and relationship behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5241) in the organizational setting. Situational Theories The premise of these theories is that different situations demand different kinds of leadership. Serious examination of the situational role in leadership began in the late 1960s by Hersey and Blanchard (1969) and Reddin (1967). Situational approaches continued to be refined and revised from the 1970s through the 1990s (Vecchio, 1987). One of these, path–goal theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5226) , examines how leaders use employee motivation to enhance performance and satisfaction. Another approach, contingency theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5178) , focuses on the match between the leader’s style and specific situational variables. Relational Theories In the 1990s, researchers began examining the nature of relations between leaders and followers. This research ultimately evolved into the leader–member exchange (LMX) theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5210) . LMX theory predicts that high-quality relations generate more positive leader outcomes than low-quality relations. Research in the relational approach https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5271 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5200 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5154 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5186 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5153 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5262 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5241 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5226 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5178 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5210 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5239 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-13&content=all&clientToken=0fc25e38-8bed-81f4-31f5-cd69359ac4a6&np=navpoint-13 3/8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5239) to leadership continues to generate moderate interest today. “New Leadership” Approaches When these approaches began appearing in the mid-1980s—three decades ago—they were, and continue to be, called “new leadership” approaches (Bryman, 1992). Beginning with the work of Bass (1985, 1990), leadership studies generated visionary or charismatic leadership theories. From these approaches developed transformational leadership theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5272) , which describes leadership as a process that changes people and organizations. Emerging Leadership Approaches A diverse range of approaches to leadership is emerging during the 21st century: Adaptive leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5146) examines how leaders help people address problems, face challenges, and adapt to change. Adaptive leadership stresses that the leaders don’t solve the problems but, rather, encourage others to do the problem solving and adapt to change. Authentic leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5150) is an approach that looks at the authenticity of leaders and their leadership and is currently enjoying strong interest. Spiritual leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5252) considers how leaders use values, a sense of “calling,” and membership to motivate followers. Servant leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5244) emphasizes the “caring principle” with leaders as “servants” who focus on their followers’ needs in order to help these followers become more autonomous, knowledgeable, and like servants themselves. Gender-based studies (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5198) , which have gained much momentum as women continue to become more dominant in the workforce, especially on a global level, view how one’s gender affects and differentiates one’s leadership. Ethical leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5191) has been thought about for millennia in terms of a leader’s character, duties, decision making, and decision outcomes. It has recently come to center stage out of concern about dishonest or unethical behavior occurring within organizations and professions. Connective leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5174) , developed by Lipman-Blumen (2000), recognizes that there are connections and interdependence between individuals and groups with diverse—and potentially conflicting—backgrounds, talents, and agendas. Connective leaders identify the mutual concerns and needs of diverse groups and help them to come together to develop understanding of one another and work toward mutual goals using a productive, collaborative approach. https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5239 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5272 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5146 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5150 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5252 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5244 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5198 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5191 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5174 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-13&content=all&clientToken=0fc25e38-8bed-81f4-31f5-cd69359ac4a6&np=navpoint-13 4/8 The historical timeline in Figure 1.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-13#s9781544351636.i757) is not intended to represent these approaches as separate and distinct eras, only to disappear from the picture when a new theory appears. Instead, many of these theories and approaches occur concurrently, building upon one another. Even when a certain approach’s period of popularity has waned, the theory continues to influence further study and the development of new leadership approaches. Description (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 20#s9781544351636-fig-1-1-longdesc) Figure 1.1 Development of Leadership Theories Through History Source: Adapted from Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A. T., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.). (2004). The nature of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, p. 7. Through the years, researchers have identified a multitude of traits that are associated with leadership. In Chapter 2 (s9781544351636.i929.xhtml) , we will discuss some key leadership traits, and in Chapter 6, we will explain how strengths-based leadership is a variation of trait leadership. Although there are many important leadership traits, what is most important for leaders is having the required traits that a particular situation demands. For example, a chaotic emergency room at a hospital requires a leader who is insightful and decisive and can bring calm to the situation. Conversely, a high school classroom in which students are bored demands a teacher who is inspiring and creative. Effective leadership results when the leader engages the right traits in the right place at the right time. “Leadership Is an Ability” In addition to being thought of as a trait, leadership is conceptualized as an ability. A person who has leadership ability (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5142) is able to be a leader—that is, has the capacity to lead. While the term ability frequently refers to a natural capacity, ability can be acquired. For example, some people are naturally good at public speaking, while others rehearse to become comfortable speaking in public. Similarly, some people have the natural physical ability to excel in a sport, while others develop their athletic capacity through exercise and practice. In leadership, some people have the natural ability to lead, while others develop their leadership abilities through hard work and practice. An example of leadership as ability is the legendary University of California at Los Angeles basketball coach John Wooden, whose teams won seven consecutive National Collegiate Athletic Association titles. Described https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-13#s9781544351636.i757 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-20#s9781544351636-fig-1-1-longdesc https://content.ashford.edu/print/s9781544351636.i929.xhtml https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5142 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-13&content=all&clientToken=0fc25e38-8bed-81f4-31f5-cd69359ac4a6&np=navpoint-13 5/8 first as a teacher and then as a coach, Wooden implemented four laws of learning into his coaching: explanation, demonstration, imitation, and repetition. His goal was to teach players how to do the right thing instinctively under great pressure. Less visible or well known, but also an example of leadership as ability, is the unheralded but highly effective restaurant manager who, through years of experience and learning, is able to create a successful, award-winning restaurant. In both of these examples, it is the individuals’ abilities that create outstanding leadership. “Leadership Is a Skill” Third, leadership is a skill. Conceptualized as a skill (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5247) , leadership is a competency developed to accomplish a task effectively. Skilled leaders are competent people who know the means and methods for carrying out their responsibilities. For example, a skilled leader in a fund-raising campaign knows every step and procedure in the fund-raising process and is able to use this knowledge to run an effective campaign. In short, skilled leaders are competent—they know what they need to do, and they know how to do it. Describing leadership as a skill makes leadership available to everyone because skills are competencies that people can learn or develop. Even without natural leadership ability, people can improve their leadership with practice, instruction, and feedback from others. Viewed as a skill, leadership can be studied and learned. If you are capable of learning from experience, you can acquire leadership. “Leadership Is a Behavior” Leadership is also a behavior. It is what leaders do when they are in a leadership role. The behavioral dimension is concerned with how leaders act toward others in various situations. Unlike traits, abilities, and skills, leadership behaviors are observable. When someone leads, we see that person’s leadership behavior. Research on leadership has shown that leaders engage primarily in two kinds of general behaviors: task behaviors and process behaviors. Task behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5262) are used by leaders to get the job done (e.g., a leader prepares an agenda for a meeting). Relationship (process) behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5241) are used by leaders to help people feel comfortable with other group members and at ease in the situations in which they find themselves (e.g., a leader helps individuals in a group to feel included). Since leadership requires both task and process behaviors, the challenge for leaders is to know the best way to combine them in their efforts to reach a goal. “Leadership Is a Relationship” Another, and a somewhat unusual, way to think about leadership is as a relationship. From a relational perspective, leadership is centered on the communication between leaders and followers rather than on the unique qualities of the leader. Thought of as a relationship, leadership becomes a process of collaboration that occurs between leaders and followers (Rost, 1991). A leader affects and is affected by followers, and both leader and followers are affected in turn by the situation that surrounds them. This approach emphasizes that leadership is not a linear one-way event, but rather an interactive event. In traditional leadership, authority is often top https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5247 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5262 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5241 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-13&content=all&clientToken=0fc25e38-8bed-81f4-31f5-cd69359ac4a6&np=navpoint-13 6/8 down; in the interactive type of leadership, authority and influence are shared. When leadership is defined in this manner, it becomes available to everyone. It is not restricted to the formally designated leader in a group. For example, a team marketing project may involve a designated team leader, but all the idea generation, planning, problem solving, and decision making might be made jointly, with active input from all members. When the final proposal is presented to the client, everyone’s contribution is reflected. Thinking of leadership as a relationship suggests that leaders must include followers and their interests in the process of leadership. A leader needs to be fully aware of the followers and the followers’ interests, ideas, positions, attitudes, and motivations. In addition, this approach has an ethical overtone because it stresses the need for leaders to work with followers to achieve their mutual purposes. Stressing mutuality lessens the possibility that leaders might act toward followers in ways that are forced or unethical. It also increases the possibility that leaders and followers will work together toward a common good (Rost, 1991). The premise of working toward a common good is embodied in the work of Susan R. Komives and her colleagues (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2013; Komives, Wagner, & Associates, 2016), particularly in the area of civic engagement. Komives et al.’s work is geared toward student leaders and how to empower them to make a difference. She and her coauthors envision leadership as a relationship among multiple partners, but with the additional goal of attempting to accomplish positive change in an ethical manner. According to Komives, Lucas, and McMahon (2013), civic engagement entails “the sense of personal responsibility individuals should feel to uphold their obligations, as part of any community” (p. 24). This can include watching out for elderly or vulnerable neighbors, creating a positive climate in the workplace, cleaning up roadsides with a group of friends, confronting unjust treatment of others when you observe it, and just generally contributing to the public good. The concept of civic engagement is also at the heart of the Social Change Model of Leadership Development developed in the mid-1990s (Astin, 1996; Bounous-Hammarth, 2001; HERI, 1996). The model depicts leadership as a connective and collaborative process based on seven values, each of which begins with the letter C (Table 1.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-13#s9781544351636.i776) ). The “seven Cs” are values that enable people to get to the goal, to accomplish positive change. “Change means improving the status quo, creating a better world, while demonstrating a comfort with transition and ambiguity during the process” (Komives et al., 2016, p. 21). “Leadership Is an Influence Process” A final way of thinking about leadership is as an influence process. This is the perspective that will be emphasized in this book. Leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5211) is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. Defining leadership as an influence process means that it is not a trait or an ability that resides in the leader, but rather an interactive event that occurs between the leader and the followers. Influence is central to the process of leadership because leaders affect followers. Leaders direct their energies toward influencing individuals to achieve something together. Stressing common goals gives leadership an ethical dimension because it lessens the possibility that leaders might act toward followers in ways that use coercion or are unethical. https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-13#s9781544351636.i776 https://content.ashford.edu/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5211 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-13&content=all&clientToken=0fc25e38-8bed-81f4-31f5-cd69359ac4a6&np=navpoint-13 7/8 The Urban Farming Guys (2019) in Kansas City took this approach when moving into and revitalizing a run- down neighborhood in their city. They began with urban gardening, converting overgrown yards to food production; started aquaponics in their limited space; invited neighbors into the process; then started rehabbing houses, teaching gardening and construction skills to people, and creating community. No single individual is responsible; it is a collective effort and is making a difference. Leadership vs. Management Finally, in explaining what leadership is, it is important to make a distinction between leadership and management. Leadership and management are not the same. Management emerged out of the industrialization of work in the early 20th century, and its purpose is to structure and coordinate various functions within organizations (Northouse, 2019). In contrast, leadership has been studied for thousands of years, across multiple contexts—politics, the military, religion, and more. Frederick Taylor was a key figure in the development of management theory. At the turn of the 20th century, Taylor pioneered the concept of the scientific management of labor. This involved measuring every detail of a worker’s tasks to make work more efficient, consistent, and predictable. According to Taylor, the responsibility of workers was to provide the labor, and the responsibilities of managers were to design the “one best way” for each task to be done, and then train, monitor, and evaluate each worker. This approach was applied to many U.S. industries in the first half of the 20th century and is still in use today in assembly lines, fast-food restaurants, and other industries (Modaff, Butler, & DeWine, 2017). Management theory was further developed by Chester Barnard, whose work in the areas of cooperation and authority helps us understand how management and leadership can sometimes overlap. Barnard (1938) conceptualized two types of authority: authority of position, and authority of leadership. Authority of position is the power to direct the work of an individual, by someone in a higher position in an organization’s structure. Authority of leadership is based not on position, but ascribed to those in the organization who have the knowledge and ability needed for a task. Barnard argued that both types were necessary for organizations to function well (Modaff et al., 2017). 8/14/2021 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/Northouse.6443.20.1?sections=navpoint-13&content=all&clientToken=0fc25e38-8bed-81f4-31f5-cd69359ac4a6&np=navpoint-13 8/8 Both leadership and management involve influence, but leadership is about seeking constructive change, and management is about establishing order. For example, it is often said that “managers are people who do things right, and leaders are people who do the right thing.” Since both leaders and managers are engaged in influencing people toward goal accomplishment, our discussion in this book will treat the roles of managers and leaders similarly and not emphasize the differences between them.