Being a Graduate Student - Information Systems
Respond to each of the following questions. Each response should be 75-100 words.
How do you think your graduate educational experience will be different from your undergraduate experience? Explain your response and provide examples.
How would you describe a graduate learning community? What would be the key components of a graduate learning community and how might they be different from key components of an undergraduate learning community? Explain your response and provide examples.
Are communication and collaboration expectations the same in a graduate learning community? Explain your response and provide examples.
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Professional Psychology: Research and Practice
1997, Vol. 28, No. 1. 87-91
Copyright 1997 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
0735-7028/97/J3.00
Graduate Student Professional Development
Kelly Ducheny
Chicago School of Professional Psychology
Heidi L. Alletzhauser
Mountain View, California
Deneen Crandell
Colorado Department of Corrections, Canon City, Colorado
Tamera R. Schneider
State University of New \ork—Stony Brook
Professional development (PD) has become an integral element of professional practice and training
within psychology and related fields, yet the construct has not been conceptually well defined.
Psychology graduate students (N = 593) were surveyed to assess PD across 3 primary areas: "What
is PD for you? Is this fostered by your program? and In which areas would you like more?" Students
endorsed numerous items as being part of PD, with only 3 elements of PD fostered by graduate
programs (statistics and research, theories of behavior, ethics). Multivariate analyses of variance
revealed some differences between clinical/counseling and research/academic students on the factors
across 2 of the primary areas. A conceptual definition of PD is offered, with recommendations
for graduate students and educators to identify PD needs and evaluate whether those needs are
being met.
Throughout the last decade, professional development (PD)
has become an integral element of professional practice and
training within psychology. PD has increasingly served as a
topic of book chapters (Devitt, 1988), articles (Miller, 1992;
Skovholt & Ronnestad, 1992a), undergraduate and graduate
student classroom seminars, and professional workshops. It is
addressed within school mission statements and internship per-
KELLY DUCHENY received her PsyD in clinical psychology in 1993 from
Wright State University, School of Professional Psychology. She is cur-
rently the associate director of clinical training/core faculty at the Chi-
cago School of Professional Psychology. Her areas of interest include
gay and lesbian issues, professional issues, multidisciplinary collabora-
tion, and multicultural interactions.
HEIDI L. ALLETZHAUSER received her PsyD in 1992 from the School of
Professional Psychology at Wright State University and is a psychologist
in Mountain View, California. Her areas of interest include child survi-
vors of homicide, domestic violence, and professional ethics.
DENEEN CRANDELL received her PsyD in clinical psychology in 1993
from Wright State University, School of Professional Psychology. She is
currently employed as a staff psychologist at the Colorado Women's
Correctional Facility in Canon City, Colorado, with interests in the treat-
ment of perpetrators of domestic violence and sexual offenses and in
professional development.
TAMERA R. SCHNEIDER received an MA in applied behavioral science
at Wright State University in 1992 and is currently pursuing her PhD in
health psychology at State University of New Y>rk—Stony Brook. Her
research interests include the intersection of stress and health, with an
emphasis on cardiovascular disease.
THIS RESEARCH WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE without the encourage-
ment and financial support of the American Psychological Association
of Graduate Students (APAGS). We are particularly appreciative of the
assistance of Todd Mook (APA staff), the APAGS Executive Board, and
the APA Office of Demographic Employment and Educational Research.
CORRESPONDENCE CONCERNING THIS .ARTICLE should be addressed to
Kelly Ducheny, Chicago School of Professional Psychology, 47 West
Polk, Chicago, Illinois 60605.
formance ratings (Ross & Altmaier, 1990), even inspiring spe-
cific committees at the national level (American Psychological
Association of Graduate Students, 1990). PD has become iden-
tified with the process of maturing and evolving as a professional
in the field of psychology.
Within the literature, several related concepts and terms are
being used to describe professional growth and development.
These terms include professional identity (McGowen & Hart,
1990), professional socialization (Green, 1991), postgraduate
development (Fogel & Click, 1991), developmental stages (Lo-
pez et al., 1989), professionalism (Oakland, 1986), and profes-
sional development (Ross & Altmaier, 1990; Skovholt & Ron-
nestad, 1992a). Although PD is widely discussed and promoted,
there is little clarity about exactly what PD is and how it is
achieved or enhanced.
Although widely heralded as a critical component of profes-
sional evolution and training, few sources have attempted to
conceptually define PD. Skovholt and Ronnestad (1992a,
1992b) conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of PD
to date but did not offer a concrete definition of the term. In
the context of education for professional psychologists, issues
of PD and standards of training have been addressed by the
National Council of Schools of Professional Psychology
(NCSPP). In a draft of their "Standards for Education on Pro-
fessional Psychology,'' the NCSPP (Callan, Peterson, & Strieker,
1986) addresses the importance of issues such as professional
socialization without attempting to further define professional
socialization or PD. Although no two sources describe PD iden-
tically, three primary elements are frequently discussed as con-
tributing to or being synonymous with PD: (a) the importance
of continuing training and familiarity with relevant research;
( b ) the influence of a supportive peer group or mentor; and (c)
the organization of PD into stages articulated by formative
events or level of training.
The first element, continuing education, is the most commonly
87
DUCHENY, ALLETZHAUSER, CRANDELL, AND SCHNEIDER
mentioned component of PD. Ross and Altmaier (1990) de-
scribed PD as an intern's ability to identify and pursue his or
her own training needs, as well as an appropriate receptivity to
supervisory feedback. In addition, attendance at professional
meetings, training sessions, and efforts to remain abreast of
relevant technical research and literature have been recom-
mended for the enhancement of PD (Devitt, 1988; McCully,
1962).
A second element common to the PD literature is access
to mentoring and supportive peer relationships. Mentoring is
suggested to serve a critical role in an individual's PD (Skov-
holt & Ronnestad, 1992a; Wright & Wright, 1987), as well as
the development of the profession as a whole (Miller, 1992).
Kreiser, Domokos-Cheng Ham, Wiggers, and Feldstein (1991)
explored the contribution to PD made by an established "profes-
sional family."
The third element commonly found in the literature is the
progression of PD through a series of stages marked by signifi-
cant formative events or task-level completion (i.e., graduation,
first job, career advancement). Skovholt and Ronnestad (1992a,
1992b) developed an eight-stage model of PD for psychothera-
pists, with stages denoted by an individual's advancement within
graduate training and the number of years a therapist has prac-
ticed after achieving a graduate degree. In other research, the
postdoctoral "phase" of PD has been divided into three distinct
stages, with each stage characterized by cumulative tasks and
professional responsibilities (Kaslow, McCarthy, Rogers, &
Summerville, 1992).
Additionally, a few authors offer some components of PD
that are intrapersonal in nature. Miller (1992) has suggested
that self-understanding of one's values, areas of interest, and
professional and personal needs is an essential component of
PD. In describing the PD of clinical psychology interns, Ross
and Altmaier (1990) have included a willingness to address
one's own issues and an independent conception of projects and
professional goals. In greater depth, Watts (1987) has viewed
PD as a combination of one's theoretical paradigm, career goals,
and an individual's principles and personal standards, whereas
Skovholt and Ronnestad (1992a) have suggested that "continu-
ous professional reflection" was the most influential method of
PD among their sample of clinicians. To this point, PD has
been advanced by the growth and exploration of its individual
components, without an integrated definition of the concept as
a whole (Fox, Barclay, & Rodgers, 1982).
This survey was initially conceptualized as a project for the
American Psychological Association of Graduate Students
(APAGS). A graduate student sample was chosen to begin re-
searching PD at the initial point of introduction to the field of
psychology and to include a population rarely studied.
The Study
Twenty-four survey items were generated through a review
of the literature that included sources mentioning professional
development or addressing graduate student training needs or
development. For each of the 24 items, participants were asked
to address three primary questions: (a) Is this part of profes-
sional development for you? (b) Is this fostered by your pro-
gram? and (c) Do you want more? Participants responded on
a 3-point scale (yes, no, or somewhat). Surveys were mailed
to 1,100 psychology graduate students across the United States
and Canada. The sample was stratified across training subspeci-
alty to reflect the current percentages of the APAGS subspecialty
membership. All students were members of APAGS. Of the
original 1,100 surveys, 604 were returned ( 5 5 % ) , with 593
surveys suitable for inclusion. Subspecialty stratification of the
sample remained within the surveys suitable for inclusion.
Students endorsed approximately two thirds of the items when
asked, "Is this part of PD for you?" However, only three items
were identified as being fostered by graduate psychology pro-
grams: familiarity with more than one theory of behavior, profi-
ciency in research and statistics, and a foundation in ethical
principles and dilemmas. These three items represent some of
the basic knowledge, skills, and attitudes within psychology,
and they fail to reflect the richness of a graduate student's
professional identity or the multidimensional sources of PD.
These elements represent the bare minimum of training a student
in psychology should receive. It appears that graduate psychol-
ogy programs have uniformly fostered only the most traditional
elements of PD.
In addition, students felt that three areas were specifically not
being fostered by their programs: development of time manage-
ment skills, development of funding proposal and grant writing
skills, and awareness of professional stages of development and
associated pitfalls. Psychology graduate students requested more
within these areas: development of supervisory and mentoring
skills, ability to function in diverse professional capacities,
awareness of professional stages of development and associated
pitfalls, involvement in a mentoring relationship, development
of special areas of interest or proficiency, and encouragement
of positive multidisciplinary relationships. These areas showcase
a strong orientation toward the future, a curiosity concerning
the process of PD itself, an interest in achieving PD through
professional relationships, and an awareness of the changing
nature of the field of psychology (see Table 1).
A factor analysis was computed to examine common variance
among the 24 items and across the three primary questions. Two
factors were found for the first primary question, "Is this part of
professional development for you?'' The first factor was labeled
Interpersonal and Multirole Effectiveness (1ME) and included
supervisory-mentoring skills, awareness of PD stages and pit-
falls, functioning in diverse capacities, multidisciplinary rela-
tions, and awareness of sex and gender issues. The second factor
addressed issues related to research and academic proficiency
and included college-level teaching skills, specialized experi-
mental techniques, presenting and publishing, and funding and
grant proposal writing skills. This factor was labeled Academia
and Research ( A R ) . Two factors were found for the third pri-
mary question, "Do you want more?" The first factor, labeled
Ethical and Societal Principles (ESP), included influence of
public policy and legal issues on psychology, incorporating soci-
ety's needs, awareness of sex and gender issues, ethical issues,
and continuing education. The second factor, entitled Scientific
Advancement ( S A ) , included proficiency in research and statis-
tics, specialized experimental techniques, and presenting and
publishing (see Table 2).
A multivariatE analysis of variance (MANO\ft) was per-
formed on the four factors. Survey respondents were placed into
GRADUATE STUDENT PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 89
Table 1
Mean Item Scores on the Professional Development
<PD) Questionnaire (N = 593)
Part of Fostered
PD for by your Want
you? program? more?
Item
Development of special areas
Mentoring relationship
Skills in quality assurance
Multicultural issues
More than one theory of behavior
Research and statistics
College-level teaching skills
Experimental skills
Presentation skills
Access to personal therapy
Facilitation of peer relations
Informal interaction with faculty
Time management
Proposal and grant writing skills
Awareness of PD stages
Supervisory/mentoring skills
Incorporating society's needs
Participation in psychology org.
Multidisciplinary relations
Sex and gender issues
Diverse professional capacities
Continuing education
Public policy/legal issues
Foundation in ethics
M
1.83
1.57
1.29
1.56
1.90
1.67
1.19
0.91
1.58
.27
.63
.34
.20
.15
1.46
1.59
1.67
1.62
1.65
1.72
1.75
1.75
1.66
1.85
SD
.44
.73
.82
.68
.38
.61
.89
.86
.69
.91
.67
.80
.89
.89
.77
.74
.62
.63
.66
.57
.57
.56
.60
.42
M
1.30
0.96
0.80
1.20
1.69
1.69
0.73
0.84
1.18
0.66
1.12
0.89
0.36
0.39
0.49
0.73
0.98
1.23
0.84
1.17
1.02
1.24
1.06
1.61
SD M
.70
.81
.79
.76
.57
.53
.78
.79
.77
.83
.77
.78
.62
.64
.68
.78
.75
.75
.77
.76
.76
.77
.75
.62
.50
.51
.34
.35
.13
).85
.24
).78
.37
.07
.34
.17
J.93
.43
.54
.61
.49
.09
.50
.37
.56
.35
.43
.28
sn
.76
.80
.82
.85
.91
.89
.89
.83
.82
.92
.83
.86
.90
.81
.72
.69
.75
.85
.73
.83
.71
.81
.76
.85
one of two groups on the basis of their subspecialty, with the
grouping variable being whether students were in a program
that emphasized psychotherapy training. Clinical and counseling
students' responses were grouped together (n = 394; clinical-
counseling) and compared with the remaining subspecialties,
including cognitive, developmental, experimental, general,
health, industrial-organizational, school, social, and other (« =
138; research-academia).
Using the Wilks's lambda criterion, the combination of the
dependent variables (the four factors) was significantly effected
by participants' group (clinical-counseling or research-acade-
mia), F(4, 527) = 21.95, p < .0001. An examination of the
univariate statistics revealed that IME was effected by group,
F( I, 530) = 39.95, p < .0001, as clinical-counseling students
reported that IME was part of PD for them more than did
research-academia students. AR was also effected by group,
F(l, 530) = 14.88, p < .0001. Research-academia students
reported that AR was part of PD for them more than did clini-
cal-counseling students. Last, SA was effected by group, F(\,
530) = 9.17, p < .01. Research—academia students reported
that they would like more instruction in research oriented skills
than did clinical-counseling students. ESP was not responded
to differently by clinical-counseling students (M = 7.05, SD
= 2.72) or research-academia students (M = 6.61, SD = 2.93).
The combination of the dependent variables was not signifi-
cantly effected by the gender of the participants.
The complexity of PD as a concept and the differing emphasis
of particular elements of PD across subspecialties are reinforced
by the factor analysis and the MANO\ft results. Clinical-coun-
seling students and research—academic students showed the ex-
pected differences and similarities in their responses, with clini-
cal-counseling students more invested in relationship factors
(IME) and research-academic students more interested in pur-
suing activities related to academic training and research (AR,
SA). Clinical-counseling students and research-academia stu-
dents responded similarly with regard to the Ethical and Societal
Principles (ESP) factor. It appears that suhspecialty field of
training influences both the means through which PD is achieved
and the specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are
incorporated.
Study results may be limited by the inclusion of only APAGS
members and by the high percentage of clinical-counseling
participants. Additional research is recommended to examine
how program type (i.e., PhD, PsyD, EdD, MA), subspecialty,
and individual student characteristics (i.e., nontraditional, ethnic
diversity, age) affect PD and the methods through which it is
achieved.
The variety and frequency of items endorsed as part of PD
suggest that for graduate students in psychology, PD is not
simply a uniform set of experiences or skills. Instead, PD is a
complex process incorporating personal and professional expe-
riences, profession-based and individual values, skills and areas
of expertise, educational background, and the establishment of
professional relationships. In the tradition of bootstrap validity
(Meehl, 1973), we offer a definition of PD for psychology based
on a critical review of the literature and analysis of survey
results: Professional development is an ongoing process through
which an individual derives a cohesive sense of professional
identity by integrating the broad-based knowledge, skills, and
attitudes within psychology with one's values and interests.
Beginning with an introduction to the field and continuing
throughout the professional life span, PD is fostered by tradi-
tional academic experiences, mentoring, peer relations, intro-
spection, training, and supervision. The methods through which
PD is achieved vary across individual and situation, and are not
solely based within the three components of PD articulated in
the literature. No one method of achieving PD may be used in
exclusion of all others, as PD requires multidimensional growth
and the integration of awareness, knowledge, and skills from
various sources.
Professional identity is the organizing mechanism for PD.
At any given point in a psychologist's career, be it declaring
psychology as one's undergraduate major or gaining tenure as a
professor of psychology, there exists some sense of professional
identity. This identity is a unique synthesis of an individual's
values and interests with the professional knowledge, skills, and
attitudes acquired throughout one's training and career. Ideally,
across time, an individual moves through a series of experiences
that require redefinition of the professional identity, thus
avoiding stagnation and increasing professional competence.
Both the mastering of the profession's knowledge, skills, and
attitudes, and the integration of personal beliefs are necessary
for PD. By engaging one's personal values and interests, a
unique professional identity is formed.
Specific manifestations of PD are not included in this defini-
tion; instead, this definition offers a basic framework around
which these elements can be placed. The definition is adaptable
90 DUCHENY, ALLETZHAUSER, CRANDELL, AND SCHNEIDER
Table 2
Results of the Factor Analysis of the Professional Development Questionnaire
Question Factor/items
Is this part of professional
development for you?
Would you like more?
Interpersonal and Multirole Effectiveness (Cronbach's a = .78)
1. Awareness of professional stages of development and associated pitfalls
2. Development of supervisory and mentoring skills
3. Awareness of the importance of incorporating society's needs into the science and practice of psychology
4. Encouragement of positive multidisciplinary relations
5. Awareness of sex and gender issues
6. Ability to function in diverse professional capacities
7. Commitment to receiving continuing education
Academia and Research (Cronbach's a = .70)
1. Skill in acquisition in teaching college-level psychology
2. Skill development in specialized experimental techniques
3. Skills in presenting/publishing student research, papers, and clinical samples
4. Development of funding proposal and grant writing skills
Ethical and Societal Principles (Cronbach's a = .73)
1. Awareness of the importance of incorporating society's needs into the science and practice of psychology
2. Awareness of sex and gender issues
3. Commitment to receiving continuing education
4. Concern regarding public policy or legal issues influencing psychology
5. Foundation in ethical principles and dilemmas
Scientific Advancement (Cronbach's a = .80)
1. Proficiency in research and statistics
2. Skill development in specialized experimental techniques
3. Skills in presenting/publishing student research, papers, and clinical samples
and process-oriented. It directly addresses the impact of an indi-
vidual's values and interests and moves beyond the three basic
elements of PD within the literature. PD is portrayed in this
definition as an ongoing process rather than a discrete set of
experiences or achievements. The stage theory of PD (Skov-
holt & Ronnestad, 1992a) connects a particular level or theme
of PD to an individual's place in training and years of experience
within the field. This stage model is restrictive and overly sim-
plistic, and it fails to adequately address the variability across
individuals and the fluidity of growth and development. The
foregoing definition, however, retains the conception of PD as
a lifelong process without designating particular issues to be
dealt with at a particular professional "age." Although there
are likely different PD needs at different stages, some of which
may proceed in a loosely sequential manner, PD is an individual-
ized, lifelong endeavor.
Implications and Applications for Graduate Students
Articulating your professional identity. A sense of empow-
erment and an appreciation for the multidimensional nature of
growth and advancement are critical to the articulation of your
PD needs. It is important to understand that you have entered
into a training program with a unique professional identity that
is composed of previous experiences within the field of psychol-
ogy and a mixture of your interests and personal values. It is a
personal responsibility to actively identify your PD needs and
to advocate for resources to achieve your PD goals.
To begin, spend some concentrated time exploring how you
define yourself and clarifying what your current PD needs may
be. This reflection could include topics of special interest, per-
sonal and professional values and commitments, preferred the-
ory of behavior change, and contributions you wish to make to
the field. For example, if you find spirituality to be a guiding
factor in your life, consider how this aspect of yourself will be
woven into your professional identity. After you have begun to
articulate your unique PD needs, you can identify whether those
needs are currently being met.
Evaluating whether your needs are being met. After articu-
lating PD needs, it is necessary to clarify whether those needs
are being satisfied. Carefully examine the "environment" of
your graduate program. Looking beyond surface elements, ex-
plore professional models and mentors, applied experiences
available, coursework offered, opportunities for collaboration,
emphasis on introspection and use of self, and the values and
"culture" of your program. Articulate which of these resources
are being used and which resources could be engaged to better
meet your PD needs. After exploring which resources are avail-
able, advocate for additional resources or develop a plan for
obtaining those experiences outside of your formal training
program.
Monitoring your PD needs. Periodically evaluate how you
are progressing toward the achievement of your PD goals. As
you evaluate a current set of PD goals, you may learn that a
different method of achieving those goals might be more effec-
tive. In addition, you may recognize that within the process of
working toward a set of articulated PD goals, your PD plan
has actually evolved and changed. A regular pattern of setting,
evaluating, and revising PD goals lays a strong foundation of
commitment to PD issues and growth, and it communicates that
the completion of graduate training is only the beginning of a
lifelong process of PD (Kreiser et al., 1991).
Implications and Applications for Graduate Educators
Psychology graduate programs are lacking a systematic
method of addressing the PD needs of their students. As an
GRADUATE STUDENT PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 91
educator; your responsibility is twofold: to lay the foundation
for a student's commitment to lifelong PD and to meet that
student's immediate PD needs while engaged in graduate study.
%ur commitment to meeting the PD needs of your students
can be expressed in numerous ways, depending on the size and
training model of your program. Review the degree requirements
and training goals of your program and assess whether it system-
atically fosters a sense of professional identity within your stu-
dent body. Articulate self-examination of PD as a priority and
develop specific opportunities to explore PD or incorporate PD
issues as a recurrent theme throughout your program's curricu-
lum. Encourage graduate students to explore their personal inter-
ests and values in relation to psychology's broad-based knowl-
edge, skills, and attitudes. In addition, challenge yourself to
foster less traditional elements of PD, to assist students in locat-
ing PD resources not available within your training program,
and to reinforce the concept of PD as a lifelong process of
growth and professional evolution.
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Received October 7, 1994
Revision received April 11, 1996
Accepted …
What to do About Being Overwhelmed
24
What to Do About Being Overwhelmed: Graduate Students,
Stress and University Services
Sara B. Oswalt, Christina C. Riddock
*
Few studies have examined graduate students and stress. At a large,
Southeastern university, 223 graduate students completed a survey about
factors contributing their stress, current coping strategies and related
university services. A majority felt stressed (48.9%) or very stressed
(24.7%). There were significant differences in coping strategies of males
and females. Many were interested in learning about and using new
coping strategies such as massage, yoga and meditation. Additionally,
affordable health insurance, improving the physical environment (i.e.,
parking), and increasing communication in the academic context could
reduce stress levels. Discussion about how health centers, counseling
centers and other Student Affairs departments can help the university
address these issues to reduce overall graduate student stress is included.
Stress can be defined as, ―the inability to cope with a perceived (real or
imaginary) threat to one‘s mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being
which results in a series of physiological responses and adaptations‖ (Seaward,
2002, p. 4). This threat can be either positive (eustress) such as graduation or
starting a new relationship, or negative, also called distress, with examples
including academic probation or not being able to pay for school. Similarly,
there are two major types of stressors: life events (such as relocation and death)
and chronic strains (such as multiple roles and inadequate finances). Students
attending a university can experience both eustress and distress in the chronic
or life event forms. Life events can include starting college, possibly in a new
area without a social support network or graduating. Chronic stress for
students can include, but is not limited to, their living environment, academic
pressures, and financial concerns.
Within the college population, mental health issues have been well documented
(Benton, Robertson, Wen-Chih, Newton, & Benton, 2003; Gallagher, 2004;
Kisch, Leino, & Silverman, 2005; Young, 2003). According to a recent national
health college survey, 1 in 10 college students have been diagnosed with
*
Sara B. Oswalt is an assistant professor, Christina C. Riddock is a graduate student, both in
the department of health and kinesiology at the University of Texas at San Antonio.
Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to [email protected]
OSWALT, RIDDOCK
FALL 2007 ~ VOLUME 27, NUMBER 1
25
depression (National Mental Health Association [NMHA], 2006). Another
study of 13,000 university students found that the number of students with
depression had increased significantly from 1989 to 2001, as did the percentage
of students who were suicidal (Benton, et al., 2003). A recent national study
showed that 10.7% of college students surveyed had seriously considered
attempting suicide in the last 12 months and 2.0% had attempted suicide in the
last 12 months (American College Health Association [ACHA], 2006b). There
has also been an increase, from 10% to 25%, in the number of students who
were taking psychiatric medications (Benton, et al.). This finding is consistent
with the more than 400% increase in spending (from $4 billion to $18 billion)
nationally on prescription drugs used to treat mental illnesses from 1991 to
2001 (Mark, Coffey, Vandivort-Warren, Harwood, & King, 2005). While
acceptance of prescription medication use for mental health may have changed
during this time frame, the extreme increase supports an overall increase in
mental health issues as well.
Some college students experience more severe mental health issues; however,
many others experience the signs and symptoms of stress. A recent national
study of college students indicated that many students felt overwhelmed with
all they have to do, with almost half of students (46.5%) having this feeling at
least 7 times a year, and 28.2% having this feeling 11 or more times a year.
Likewise, 32.8% felt exhausted (not from physical activity) 9 or more times in
the last year. Stress also negatively affects students‘ academics; 22.9% of
students reported receiving a lower grade on an exam, 6.6% receiving a lower
course grade and 1.3% receiving an incomplete or withdrawing from a course
because of their stress (ACHA, 2006b). Similar data from 2003 and 2004
identified stress as the number one health impediment to a students‘ academic
performance with 32.0% and 32.4% of students being affected, respectively
(ACHA, 2005; ACHA, 2006a).
Other studies have demonstrated an increase in the stress level among college
students over time. For example, students in the 1950‘s experiencing such
strong anxiety to be categorized in the highest 16th percentile would only rank
as having an average level of anxiety in the 1990‘s (Twenge, 2000). Similarly,
the number of college students who marked ―frequently‖ when asked how
often they ―felt overwhelmed by all I had to do‖ increased from 16% in 1985
to 25.3% in 1995 (Gallagher, 2004).
Regardless of classification, college students report feeling stressed about
getting good grades and earning their respective degrees. Excessive homework,
time pressure, financial difficulties, interpersonal problems and relationships
with faculty were issues that also caused stress (Ross, Niebling & Heckert,
1999). Students who described themselves as being ―stressed‖ experienced
lower levels of self-esteem and perceived themselves as less healthy. They were
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THE COLLEGE STUDENT AFFAIRS JOURNAL
26
also more likely to engage in more unhealthy behaviors, such as eating junk
food, binge drinking, not exercising regularly (Hudd, et al., 2000) and scored
lower on a health reported quality of life scale (Damush, Hays, & DiMatteo,
1997). Several studies have shown that women are more likely than men to
experience feelings of stress at all academic levels (Hudd, et al.; Mallinckrodt &
Leong, 1992; Sax, 1997).
Most stress-related studies have focused on undergraduate students. The few
studies that have examined stress in graduate and professional students
demonstrate these students report stress related to role conflict, time
constraint, financial pressure, and lack of family or program support (Hudd, et
al., 2000). Similar to graduate students, non-traditional students report that the
challenge of multiple roles often contributes to their stress (Dill & Henley,
1998). When graduate students try to cope with these pressures, they often
experience internal conflict. If unresolved, they continually question their
decisions and if resolved, the student may still experience physical and mental
fatigue, burn out, depression, and guilt over their chosen priorities (Offstein,
Larson, McNeil, & Mwale, 2004). One study found that only 29% of a
professional student population sought mental health services. An additional
20% were interested in mental health services but did not seek them because of
long waiting lists, scheduling problems, lack of knowledge of the services that
were available, seeking services outside the university, time constraints, stigma
or improved circumstances (Stecker, 2004).
While many colleges and universities offer services to address stress,
determining how graduate students cope with stressors and, more importantly,
how universities can assist graduate students with their stress is critical. The
following mixed-methods exploratory study examined issues influencing
graduate student stress, coping skills and services used by graduate students,
and interest in other resources or services that could be offered by the
University. The main research questions are as follows:
How do graduate students perceive their level of stress and ability to
manage that stress?
What issues contribute to graduate students‘ perceived stress?
What coping mechanisms are used by graduate students and how do
these affect their stress level?
What coping strategies are graduate students interested in learning
more about and what coping strategies would graduate students utilize
if available at the university?
OSWALT, RIDDOCK
FALL 2007 ~ VOLUME 27, NUMBER 1
27
Are there differences between men and women regarding issues
surrounding stress?
Method
Graduate students at a large research university in the southeastern U.S. were
solicited to participate in a web-based survey about graduate students and
stress during fall semester 2001. Two main solicitation methods were used: (a)
email announcements with the web link were sent to the Graduate Student
Association (GSA) listserv, and (b) email requests with the web link were sent
to all graduate program coordinators and advisors asking them to distribute the
request to graduate students in their respective programs. Because professional
students (law, veterinary, pharmacy, medical and dental schools) may have
different experiences (no graduate or research assistantships, more structured
programs) than graduate students, professional students were not included in
this study. The research protocol received Human Subjects approval and
followed all Institutional Review Board guidelines.
The researchers did not have direct access to the students via email and the
participation recruitment methods were used with the intent of reaching as
many of the current graduate student population as possible. However, if the
information was not forwarded by the graduate program coordinator and the
student was not an active member of the GSA, he or she may not have
received any notice of the survey. At the same time, students may have
received more than one notice about the survey – from their program
coordinator, through GSA or through friends. Because it is unclear how many
invitations were received by individual students, insufficient data are available
to determine the actual response rate for the survey; slightly less than 4% of
the total graduate student population of this University was surveyed.
Instrument Design
The intent of this instrument was to specifically examine the effects of stress
on graduate students in relation to the role and services of the University and
Student Affairs departments in particular. As this area has not been studied
previously, there were no existing and/or previously validated instruments to
use for this project. As a result, a survey was created with the intent of
examining these issues.
A pilot study was conducted. This preliminary investigation included a focus
group which served to discern perceived levels of stress among graduate
students and methods used to address their stress. The focus group produced
ideas that provided guidance for survey development. The pilot survey
consisted of 16 total items: four Likert like scale questions about perceived
stress, issues affecting stress and health; three open ended questions; three
multi-item checklist questions about coping strategies; and six demographic
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THE COLLEGE STUDENT AFFAIRS JOURNAL
28
variables. Twenty-five individuals completed the pilot survey, primarily for
reading and comprehension. The results of the focus group and the survey
were consistent across the majority of responses.
After revisions based on the pilot study, the instrument, Stress in Graduate
Students Survey (Author, 2001), consisted of 26 total items. Three Likert like
scale questions asked about perceived overall stress, stress management, and
level of health. These items were not a scale, so it was not appropriate to
determine the standardized alpha coefficient.
Nine items addressed the impact of nine specific issues on one‘s stress level.
The list of nine items was developed based on the focus group discussions.
Individuals were asked to rank on a scale of 1 to 5 if the issue contributed a lot
or a little to their stress level. The nine issues were: career planning, children,
extended family, finances, graduate/teaching assistantship, job, living
arrangements, relational partner, and school work. These nine issues were not
considered mutually exclusive, exhaustive, or a scale, so reliability analysis was
not performed.
Part of the 26-item survey included three multi-item checklist questions which
explored coping strategies currently used, coping strategies the respondent
would be interested in learning more about, and coping strategies that would
be used if offered by the University. Two open-ended questions addressed
what services the University could offer to help students manage stress and
what other changes on campus could be made in order to reduce stress. Nine
questions related to demographics: age, sex, ethnicity, college, relationship
status, number of children, years in graduate school at present university, total
years of graduate school, and if they were an international student.
Data Analyses
The survey was modified to an online format using Perseus Survey Solutions;
SPSS for Windows was used to analyze the data. Results from all quantitative
questions are included below. Both parametric and nonparametric measures
have been used. Any missing data has been eliminated pairwise. For t-tests,
Levene‘s test for Equality of Variances was checked and if significant, the test
statistic for unequal variances was reported. Unless otherwise reported, all
other appropriate assumptions were met.
Responses from the two open-ended questions -- what services the university
could offer to help with managing stress and what other changes on campus
could reduce stress—were coded and analyzed for commonality. When the
responses were coded from the perspective of the research purpose, several
―key words‖ emerged. These key words were then sorted into themes
according to their prevalence of occurrence. The themes and corresponding
OSWALT, RIDDOCK
FALL 2007 ~ VOLUME 27, NUMBER 1
29
responses were then reviewed by a second researcher for consistency; minimal
adjustments were made by the second reviewer. A brief summary of these
themes is presented in the results section.
Results
The following section details the participant demographics and the results
related to each research question.
Participants
Responding to an email solicitation, 223 graduate students completed a survey
about the effect of stress on graduate students. This sample comprised 3.73%
of the total 5975 graduate student population for this university (University of
Georgia, 2002). Because of the multiple techniques used to distribute the
survey and because the researcher was unable to contact all graduate students
directly, an accurate response rate can not be calculated.
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Sample
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Table 1 (continued)
Most participants were female (71.7%, n = 160), White (84.3%, n = 188) and
students in either the College of Arts and Sciences (51.6%, n = 115) or the
College of Education (24.2%, n = 54). Almost 10% (9.4%, n = 21) of
respondents classified themselves as international students. Slightly over 14%
(14.3%, n = 32) of the respondents had children. A comparison of available
demographic characteristics to the overall graduate student population at this
University and additional demographic information are provided in Tables 1
and 2.
OSWALT, RIDDOCK
FALL 2007 ~ VOLUME 27, NUMBER 1
31
Table 2
Additional Participant Demographic Information
Quantitative Results
The first research question asked how graduate students perceived their level
of stress and their ability to manage that stress. Overall, the respondents
reported high levels of stress; 24.7% (n = 55) rated themselves as being very
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32
stressed and 48.9% (n = 109) rated themselves as a 4 on a 5 point scale with 5
being very stressed. Less than 1% (n = 2) reported having no stress. The
students‘ perceived ability to manage stress was almost equally divided into
thirds; 31.4% (n = 70) reported above average ability in managing their stress
level, while 36.8% (n = 82) indicated average ability and 31.9% (n = 71)
indicated that they did not manage their stress well. Interestingly, 88.3% (n =
197) believed the quality of their health was good, very good or excellent.
Another 10.8% (n = 24) described their health as fair, with less than 1% (n = 2)
who described their health as poor. The high level of perceived health seems in
contrast to the high levels of stress reported and moderate levels of perceived
ability to manage that stress. There were significant correlations between these
three variables as shown in Table 3. In addition, there was a significant
difference between males and females regarding overall level of stress, with
females reporting higher levels of stress than male respondents [t(95.68)* =
2.47, p < .05]. There were no differences between the sexes for perceived
ability to manage stress or overall health.
Table 3
Correlations Between Perceived Stress Level, Overall Health, and Ability to
Manage Stress (N = 223)
Issues Influencing Stress
When asked about specific issues that impacted their stress, respondents rated
school work as having the most impact on their stress, with a mean of 4.26 on
a 5 point scale (SD = 1.02). Responses for all issues are listed in Table 4. Males
and females differed regarding these issues. Finances [t(87.52) = -2.34, p < .05],
job [t(117) = -2.93, p < .01], and school work [t(210) = -2.26, p < .05)
contributed more to females‘ level of stress than males‘.
*
Levene‘s test for Equality of Variances was significant, so the value reported
is for unequal variances.
OSWALT, RIDDOCK
FALL 2007 ~ VOLUME 27, NUMBER 1
33
Table 4
Issues Influencing Perceived Stress Level *
In addition to the prelisted categories, participants could identify additional
issues that contributed to stress in their lives. While some individuals took this
opportunity to clarify ratings given to the listed issues, other participants listed
other issues; major categories for these additional issues were (a) loneliness and
adjustment to new surroundings, (b) time management and multi-tasking, (c)
departmental and university issues, (d) health issues, and (e) world and
international events.
Stepwise regression analysis for the nine issues contributing to graduate student
stress was conducted to more closely examine which had an impact on the
level of perceived stress. This analysis revealed ―job‖ as the only significant
predictor of perceived stress level ( -0.41, p < .05, adjusted R
2
= 0.14).
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THE COLLEGE STUDENT AFFAIRS JOURNAL
34
Coping Strategies
Respondents were asked about coping strategies related to stress management.
Three separate checklist questions asked individuals which coping strategies
they currently used, which strategies they would be interested in learning more
about, and which strategies they would use if offered by the University.
Table 5
Use of Current Coping Strategies
The most common coping strategy currently used by participants to manage
stress was talking with friends (69.5%, n = 155) followed by eating comfort
foods (68.2%, n = 152). However, these strategies were used more by women
than men. In fact, there were several significant differences between the sexes,
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FALL 2007 ~ VOLUME 27, NUMBER 1
35
with females more likely to use aromatherapy, use counseling/therapy, eat
comfort foods, shop, talk to friends and watch TV. While not statistically
different from female use, the most common coping strategies used by men
were ―vegging out‖ (67.8%, n = 40) and exercise (55.9%, n = 33). Use of these
coping strategies for both males and female as well as chi-square differences
are listed in Table 5. Females (M = 6.12, SD = 2.12) also utilized significantly
more coping strategies than males [M = 4.78, SD = 2.23; t(216) = -4.09, p <
.001].
Table 6
Regression for Perceived Stress Level and Ability to Manage Stress
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The third research question also asked how coping mechanisms affected
perceived stress and ability to manage stress. In order to answer this question,
regression analysis was used to examine how the specific coping strategies used
affected one‘s perceived level of stress. This regression equation contained 20
potential predictor variables which requires a minimum of 159 subjects for
medium or large effect sizes (Green, 1991); with a sample of 220 used for these
regression analyses, this criteria was met. For perceived stress level, the overall
model was not significant. Regression analysis was also undertaken to examine
how these same variables affect one‘s perceived level of managing stress.
Prescription medication, smoking cigarettes and yoga were the significant
predictors for this equation.
Table 7
Coping Strategies Students Interested in Learning More About
The fourth research question asked about graduate students‘ interest in
learning more about coping strategies and which strategies they would utilize if
offered by the University. Regarding interest in learning more about specific
coping strategies, of those responding to this item, massage was the strategy
OSWALT, RIDDOCK
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37
identified most frequently (54.8%, n = 100). There was only one difference
between the sexes – aromatherapy – with females more interested in
aromatherapy than males. Respondents also identified which services they
would utilize if offered by the University; the top response was massage
(65.5%, n = 131). Response rates for all coping strategies with the Chi-square
values are listed in Table 8.
Table 8
Coping Strategies Students Would Utilize if Offered By University
Open-ended questions
The survey included two open-ended questions: ―What other services would
you like the University Health Center to offer to help reduce/manage your
level of stress?‖ and, ―Are there other changes on campus that would reduce
your level of stress? If so, please list.‖ For each open-ended question, a
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THE COLLEGE STUDENT AFFAIRS JOURNAL
38
thematic analysis of the narrative responses was conducted. The text from each
question was coded and analyzed for categories of commonality. A second
researcher reviewed the categories and placement of responses for agreement;
minimal adjustments were made.
In the first open-ended question, ―What other services would you like the
University Health Center to offer to help reduce/manage your level of stress?‖
three themes emerged: cost of health services, access to and availability of
health services, and increasing alternative and specialized stress-
reduction/recreational activities. Regarding cost, many students noted that the
fees for some services and lack of health insurance or poor coverage from
plans affected their ability to access existing services, especially counseling
options. For example, one student stated, ―Offer counseling which is
affordable by graduate students with families. It is ridiculous that you
charge….approximately 12% of the typical grad students‘ gross monthly
income. I am not seeking the recommended counseling because we cannot
afford it.‖ Another student stated, ―I don‘t need any more services. The Health
Center is just fine. I just need decent health insurance so I can actually go to
the Health Center.‖
Complicated schedules also prevent students from using services that they
want or need. Students suggested increased hours, counseling services available
by phone, and materials available for check-out for those who can‘t make
scheduled stress programs. The final theme emphasized increased availability
of yoga, Tai-Chi, and other forms of stress reduction. One student also
suggested ―an exercise program specifically designed and limited to students
who are in poor shape…that incorporates relaxation techniques and fitness.‖
The final open ended question asked, ―Are there other changes on campus that
would reduce your level of stress? If so, please list.‖ From this question, four
major themes emerged. The first theme revisited the idea of increased access to
affordable health insurance; one student stated ―the biggest source of financial
stress I have is trying to pay for health care every semester.‖ The second
theme also related to financial issues with students suggesting that increased
stipends for graduate assistants and reduction or exemption from university
fees would decrease their stress. The third theme involved concerns about the
physical environment. Students believed that availability of parking, especially
close to their offices, would be helpful. Many students identified stress related
to parking, whether it be looking for a parking spot and/or traveling with many
materials from the parking lot to their office. Students also identified lack of
office space with Internet and network access and study locations as additional
concerns.
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39
The final theme encompassed that graduate students would benefit from an
academic environment with improved communication, less bureaucracy and
more respect for their contributions to the university community. Students felt
that faculty members were not sensitive to the stress they experience, and that
excessive paperwork and the many university procedures were cumbersome. In
addition, communicating clearer expectations to the students regarding
program of study requirements, assistantship duties, and university procedures
would be beneficial. Finally, increasing the appreciation for the graduate
students and their contributions was also emphasized; ―The university
administration needs to recognize that graduate students are a vital, essential
part of the teaching and research community of this campus and we are
distinctly different from undergrads in our needs. I often feel like we as a
whole are this silent unseen workforce laboring late into the night grading
papers and churning out data. It‘s a pretty lonely endeavor.‖
Discussion and Recommendations
Results from this study show that a majority of the graduate students who
completed the survey reported high levels of stress with school work, finances,
assistantships and job as the issues contributing most to their levels of stress.
The high level of concern about academic performance was consistent with
existing literature (Stecker, 2004).
Graduate students and nontraditional students are often thought to have
multiple roles as their primary source of stress (Dill & Henley, 1998). In
addition to being a student, this survey only considered worker, parent and
partner as other roles. Only 14% of the participants have children, 32% were
not involved in an exclusive relationship, and 44% said that job as a stress
category was not applicable to them. Other roles, such as caretaker of a parent
or other relative, were not measured, but for those measured, it appeared that
the concept of multiple roles may not contribute as much to these graduate
students‘ stress as previous literature indicates.
Graduate students report a variety of coping mechanisms to address their
stress level with talking to friends as the most common overall and for women;
however, the most common coping strategy for men was to ―veg out.‖ Many
individuals also report less healthy behaviors such as using alcohol or smoking
cigarettes. Three specific behaviors – using prescription medication, smoking
cigarettes and yoga – had an impact on one‘s perceived ability to manage stress
with individuals using prescription medication and smoking indicating better
management. At the same time, individuals are interested in learning more
about other healthy coping strategies and are often interested in accessing them
through the university.
As university professionals, we need to examine ways to increase the likelihood
of these students engaging in the healthy coping strategies that they are
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THE COLLEGE STUDENT AFFAIRS JOURNAL
40
interested in, versus negative ones (like using alcohol or cigarettes) or even
neutral ones (like ―vegging out‖). Offering such alternatives is an important
step, but publicizing them in avenues directed toward graduate students is
equally vital. Graduate students often have classes in one department or
building with much time spent in their office or lab. Fliers, newspaper
advertisements and other typical strategies to advertise services may not be as
successful with …
July/August 2007 ◆ vol 48 no 4 �
Graduate Student Involvement: Socialization
for the Professional Role
Susan K. Gardner Benita J. Barnes
Undergraduate student involvement has been
linked to retention and satisfaction (Astin, 1993;
Tinto, 1993); however, no empirical research has
yet been conducted on the outcomes of involve
ment at the graduate level. We interviewed 10
doctoral students in higher education in order to
explore graduate student involvement, finding
that it is not only markedly different from
undergraduate involvement, but that it is an
integral part of the socialization process for the
future profession.
Involvement in the higher education setting
has been studied extensively (e.g., Astin, �984;
Camp, �990; Hartnett, �965; Kuh, Schuh, &
Whitt, �99�; Pascarella & Terenzini, �99�,
2005). Although much has been learned about
the effects of and influences upon involvement
at the undergraduate level, no known studies
have focused on the effects of graduate student
involvement in the higher education setting.
Graduate student involvement, whether in
local graduate student organizations or in
nationally affiliated professional associations,
holds many benefits for graduate students,
including socialization to the academic
profession (Gardner, 2005).
Involvement was described by Astin
(�977) as “the time and effort expended by the
student in activities that relate directly to the
institution and its program” (p. 2�). Astin
(�977) described involvement as a multifaceted
concept, stating that involvement can encom
pass academic, social, and political dimensions,
but that greater involvement generally leads to
greater academic success. Indeed, undergraduate
involvement has been linked to multiple
variables of academic success including higher
retention rates, higher satisfaction rates with
the educational experience, higher rates of
academic performance and cognitive growth,
and higher rates of development of career
related competencies (e.g., Astin, �977, �984,
�993; Pascarella & Terenzini, �99�, 2005;
Tinto, �993). In general, studies and commen
tary about involvement tend to encompass
time spent in cocurricular activities, such as
clubs, social and honorary organizations, and
time spent volunteering and participating in
community activities, but may also extend
involvement to include any interactions within
the campus community and the campus
setting overall.
The purpose of this study is to explore the
influences upon and benefits of graduate
student involvement in local, national, and
professional associations and organizations. In
particular, we employ Astin’s (�984) conceptu
alization of involvement for this exploration.
We begin with a brief background on involve
ment in higher education settings as well as a
discussion of the guiding conceptual framework
for the study. Design, findings, and implications
for research, policy, and practice then follow.
Background
Over �.5 million graduate students are cur
rently enrolled in U.S. universities, including
Susan K. Gardner is Assistant Professor of Higher Education at Louisiana State University. Benita J. Barnes is
Assistant Professor of Higher Education at the University of Massachusetts–Amherst.
2 Journal of College Student Development
Gardner & Barnes
students pursuing both master’s and doctoral
degrees (Brown, 2005). Graduate education,
and doctoral education in particular, is an
integral part of higher education, providing
not only the next generation of scholars but
also the creation and transmission of knowledge
to constituencies both inside and outside of
academia. However, doctoral education in the
United States is also rife with issues and
concerns. High rates of student attrition,
excessive time to degree, inadequate training
for teaching and research, limited academic
job market in some fields, and lack of attraction
to pursue the professorial career in other fields,
as well as funding difficulties, riddle the
commentary and research on doctoral educa
tion today. These criticisms have spawned a
host of studies that seek to better understand
the purposes, processes, and outcomes of the
doctoral education experience (Fagen &
Suedkamp Wells, 2004; Golde & Dore, 200�;
Lovitts, 200�; Nettles & Millett, 2006;
Nyquist & Woodford, 2000); nevertheless,
there is still much that is not known about the
doctoral education experience. One must only
look to the extensive literature on the many
facets of the undergraduate experience to see
that comparable research has not yet been con
ducted about graduate school or the graduate
student experience. Although many studies
have examined the impact of certain interven
tions and programmatic efforts on under
graduate persistence, satisfaction, and comple
tion, very few studies have examined the effects
of similar interventions and efforts at the
graduate level upon these same outcomes.
For example, extensive research regarding
undergraduate involvement has been conducted
in multiple settings and with multiple popula
tions to better understand the reasons students
get involved, the benefits they achieve from
their involvement, and the long term outcomes
of involvement on the students’ experience and
future. Involvement at the undergraduate level
has been linked to positive outcomes such as
increased learning and personal development,
academic achievement, retention, and satis
faction with the educational experience (e.g.,
Astin, �993; Camp, �990; Hartnett, �965;
Kuh, 200�; Pascarella & Terenzini, �99�,
2005). However, no such studies regarding the
benefits, correlates, and outcomes of graduate
student involvement have been conducted,
perhaps with the exception of one. In her
interviews with 40 doctoral students, Gardner
(2005) found that many of the students
mentioned the benefits they gained from
participation in departmental graduate student
organizations, translating into increased social
interaction with peers and faculty members,
peer mentoring from more advanced graduate
students, and professional development
opportunities such as brown bag seminars on
relevant topics. It was clear from Gardner’s
study that involvement played a role in the
students’ socialization to their departments
and their disciplines, but the scope of this
involvement and its outcomes were unclear.
Perhaps it is the nature of the educational
experience that explains a plethora of research
on undergraduates and a paucity of research
on graduate students. This case can be made
when one looks at the literature that exists
about student attrition. In other words,
whereas undergraduate attrition studies focus
on the connections between the individual
student and the larger institution (Tinto,
�993), attrition at the doctoral level can be
thought of more as the connection between
the student and the student’s discipline and
department, rather than the institution as a
whole (Berelson, �960; Golde, 2005; Lovitts,
200�; Nerad & Miller, �996; Tinto). As stated
by Golde (2005), “The department, rather
than the institution as a whole, is the locus of
control for doctoral education” (p. 67�).
Therefore, the role of the discipline (localized
through the academic department) is central
July/August 2007 ◆ vol 48 no 4 3
Graduate Student Involvement
to understanding not only the issue of doctoral
attrition, but also to all of the doctoral
experience in general. This is to say that the
graduate experience is not monolithic; one
cannot assume that what a doctoral student in
chemistry experiences is similar to that of a
doctoral student in history or a doctoral
student in education. Again, an understanding
of the discipline is central to the understanding
of the experience in doctoral education.
Academic disciplines have become a focus
of study in their own right. Categorized and
characterized over time (e.g., Becher, �98�;
Biglan, �973; B. R. Clark, �987), disciplines
have their own particular qualities, cultures,
codes of conduct, values, and distinctive
intellectual tasks (Becher) that ultimately
influence the experiences of the faculty, staff,
and most especially the students within their
walls. Becher and Trowler (200�) highlighted
this point: “We may appropriately conceive of
disciplines as having recognizable identities
and particular cultural attributes” (p. 44).
Therefore, as one seeks to better understand
any facet of the graduate student experience,
such as involvement, one must look to one
particular discipline or field of study to better
understand and isolate the phenomenon,
understanding that the field of study has its
own culture, values, and attitudes that influence
those working within it. The culture of a
discipline, as described by Becher, readily lends
itself to a discussion of organizational and
professional socialization, the framework that
grounds this study.
Conceptual Framework
Socialization is the chosen framework for this
study on graduate student involvement, as it
is the process through which an individual
learns to adopt the values, skills, attitudes,
norms, and knowledge needed for membership
in a given society, group, or organization
(Merton, �957; Tierney, �997; Van Maanen
& Schein, �979). The concept of socialization
as it relates to understanding graduate educa
tion and the student’s role in it, however, is
best understood through the lens of organi
zational socialization. Van Maanen and Schein
described organizational socialization as “the
process by which an individual acquires the
social knowledge and skills necessary to assume
an organizational role” (p. 2��). In this way,
the graduate student acquires the skills and
knowledge necessary for entrance to and
success in the professional milieu.
This conceptualization of organizational
socialization is paired with theories of graduate
student socialization in order to better
understand the role and structure of graduate
student involvement, in particular. Golde
(�998) described the process of graduate
school socialization as one “in which a new
comer is made a member of a community—in
the case of graduate students, the community
of an academic department in a particular
discipline” (p. 56). She continued, “The
socialization of graduate students is an unusual
double socialization. New students are simul
taneously directly socialized into the role of
graduate student and are given preparatory
socialization into graduate student life and the
future career” (p. 56). In this study, we examine
graduate student involvement through the lens
of organizational socialization based on the
assumption that graduate students’ involvement
in organizations and associations allows them
to engage with their peers and faculty in ways
that contribute to their socialization to the
norms of graduate school. Furthermore, in
volvement at the national level concomitantly
facilitates engagement with other professionals
in the field, thereby contributing to the
students’ socialization to larger professional
norms beyond the scope of their department
or institution.
Tinto (�993), although known primarily
for his work on undergraduate student
4 Journal of College Student Development
Gardner & Barnes
persistence, also developed a working theory
of doctoral persistence, which follows closely
to existing models of graduate student sociali
zation. His theory is clearly linked with
socialization, implying that successful sociali
zation results in persistence on the part of the
graduate student. Tinto’s theory of graduate
persistence includes three stages. The first
stage, Transition, typically covers the first year
of study. During this stage the “individual
seeks to establish membership in the academic
and social communities of the university”
(p. 235). This stage is shaped by social and
academic interactions, especially those inter
actions within the graduate department.
Persistence at this stage is marked by the
student making a personal commitment to the
goal of completion, which depends upon the
desirability of membership and the likely costs
and benefits of further involvement. The
second stage, Candidacy, “entails the acquisition
of knowledge and the development of com
petencies deemed necessary for doctoral
research” (p. 236). This stage depends greatly
upon the success of the individual’s abilities
and skills as well as the interactions with
faculty. The final stage, Doctoral Completion,
“covers that period of time from the gaining
of candidacy, through the completion of a
doctoral research proposal, to the successful
completion of the research project and defense
of the dissertation” (p. 237). At this stage, the
nature of the interaction with faculty shifts
from interacting with many faculty to inter
acting with few; as in the case of the dissertation
advisor. Tinto asserted, “The character of the
candidate’s commitments to those communities,
such as families and work, and the support
they provide for continued study may spell the
difference between success and failure at this
stage” (p. 237).
Tinto (�993) thereby makes the connection
between involvement with peers and faculty
to that of socialization and persistence.
Socialization is integral to the success of the
doctoral student in his or her degree attainment
(Turner & Thompson, �993). However, as
previously stated, socialization in graduate
education is not a monolithic experience and
depends greatly on the culture and context in
which the student is situated. We discuss the
contexts of discipline in the next section as
well as the methods used to conduct the
study.
MethodS
In order to better understand involvement at
the level of graduate school as well as the
students’ motivation to become involved, the
benefits they gained from their involvement,
and the processes inherent in the involvement
experience, �0 doctoral students in the field
of higher education administration from five
institutions were interviewed. We chose to
interview students studying in the field of
higher education in order to better understand
the influence of discipline or field of study
upon the phenomenon of involvement at the
graduate level. The field of higher education,
in particular, was of interest as it often focuses
on the importance of involvement in the
educational experience through the inclusion
of studies like that of Astin (�984) in the
curriculum. In addition, due to the dearth of
research and information on the topic of
graduate student involvement, we utilized a
qualitative approach to the study as it allowed
for the identification of unanticipated phe
nomena and influences cu:(Maxwell, �996)
and facilitated a better understanding in what
was largely an exploratory study (Creswell,
2003). This qualitative approach to the study
was also indicative of the epistemological and
theoretical perspectives inherent in our design.
For this study, we rested solidly upon a
constructivist view of reality, wherein “all
knowledge, and therefore all meaningful reality
July/August 2007 ◆ vol 48 no 4 5
Graduate Student Involvement
as such, is contingent upon human practices,
being constructed in and out of interaction
between human beings and their world, and
developed and transmitted within an essentially
social context” (Crotty, �998, p. 42). In this
way, we believe that our participants were able
to express their own knowledge and under
standing of their experiences in graduate
school as well as their connection to the larger
social constructions of graduate education and
higher education in general.
The �0 graduate student participants in
the study were drawn from several sources.
Initially, the students were identified through
contact with graduate student representatives
from several national professional associations,
and then using a snowball sampling technique
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2003) more participants
were chosen based upon the recommendation
of colleagues in the field of higher education.
Participants were initially contacted via email
to ask for their participation and then were
interviewed in person or over the phone,
depending on the distance from our own
campuses. We were purposeful in our selection
of participants in order to have nearly equal
gender and racial representation, resulting in
five women, five men, four Caucasian students,
and six students of color from five separate,
researchextensive institutions throughout the
United States. Students also represented
diverse professional aspirations, with five of
the students aiming to enter the academic
profession and the other five planning to
become administrators upon completion of
the degree program. Further, with the use of
purposeful selection of participants in order
to hear the voices of students within different
years of the degree program so as to better
understand how involvement changes and
develops throughout the graduate student
experience, half of the participants were in the
coursework phase of their programs and the
other half had ABD status or were nearing
completion. Although the majority of the
students interviewed were fulltime students,
two of the students were pursuing their studies
part time while they maintained professional
positions on their respective campuses (see
Table � for more detailed information on each
participant). We were also purposeful in
choosing to study graduate students in higher
taBle 1.
Participant Information
Phase in Professional Full or
Pseudonym Program Age Sex Race Aspiration Part Time
ellie Graduated 28 F Caucasian Faculty Ft
leslie Graduated 32 F african american Faculty Ft
James dissertation 44 M Caucasian administration Pt
Paul Coursework 27 M african american administration Ft
anne dissertation 35 F Caucasian Faculty Ft
Sara dissertation 31 F Caucasian Faculty Ft
Conrad dissertation 26 M african american administration Ft
Beth Coursework 33 F african american administration Ft
daniel dissertation 31 M african american administration Pt
Michael Coursework 25 M african american Faculty Ft
6 Journal of College Student Development
Gardner & Barnes
education in this study in order to best
understand the phenomenon of involvement
in one particular context. As stated previously,
disciplinary culture and context is the true
center and basis for the graduate student
experience (Golde, 2005).
Interviews with the �0 doctoral students
were conducted using a structured protocol
(see Appendix) that addressed the types of
involvement the student had experienced, the
influences for becoming involved, and the
influence of this involvement upon the
student’s coursework, future career aspirations,
and professional development. In this way, the
protocol was tied directly to the conceptual
framework of socialization as it examined both
the graduate student environment as well as
the professional environment to which the
student aspired. Although the protocol was
structured, we allowed for great flexibility in
the participants’ responses, which facilitated a
better understanding of the phenomenon of
graduate student involvement in the study of
higher education.
Each student was interviewed once for the
study, resulting in inter views that were
approximately 60 to 90 minutes in length. All
interviews were transcribed verbatim and ana
lyzed according to the constant comparative
method, “a research design for multidata
sources, which is like analytic induction in that
the formal analysis begins early in the study
and is nearly completed by the end of data
collection” (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003, p. 66).
The steps of the constant comparative method,
according to Glaser (�978) include: (a) begin
collecting data; (b) find key issues, events, or
activities in the data that become main
categories for focus; (c) collect data that
provide many incidents of the categories of
focus; (d) write about the categories explored,
keeping in mind past incidents while searching
for new; (d) work with the data and emerging
model to discover relationships; and (e) sample,
code, and write with the core categories in
mind. The steps of the constant comparative
method occur simultaneously during data
collection until categories are saturated and
writing begins. This study utilized Glaser’s
steps in data analysis, which allowed for
emergent themes to develop from the data and
provided a means by which large amounts of
data were compressed into meaningful units
for analysis.
Finally, it is important to note the limita
tions of the study. Although trustworthiness
of the data collected and its subsequent analysis
were obtained through the ongoing discussions
and comparisons of data by the two researchers
in the study, the inclusion of only one
disciplinary field for the study limited an
overall understanding of graduate student
involvement. Furthermore, although the
purposeful inclusion of a diverse demographic
population in regard to enrollment status, race,
and gender could be seen as strengthening the
study, the more nuanced understandings of
how these individual demographic character
istics intersected with involvement may have
been lost. Finally, our role as researchers in this
study must also be acknowledged. As we had
both recently graduated from programs in
higher education at the time of the study, our
own involvement experiences may have
influenced our understanding of the partici
pants’ experiences. Again, through lengthy
discussions about the data collection, our
assumptions about the study, and our individual
biases, a more trustworthy analysis emerged.
This analysis is presented in the following
section, lending to a better understanding of
the influences upon and benefits from graduate
student involvement in the field of higher
education.
FIndInGS
From the analysis of the interviews conducted,
four themes emerged regarding the higher
July/August 2007 ◆ vol 48 no 4 7
Graduate Student Involvement
education graduate students’ involvement.
These four themes, each discussed briefly
below, include (a) qualities of graduate
involvement, (b) continuum of involvement,
(c) influences upon involvement, and (d) out
comes of involvement. The findings are then
followed by a discussion as well as the
implications of these findings for research,
policy, and practice.
Qualities of Graduate Student
Involvement
As we spoke with each of the students it was
clear that the students qualified their graduate
student involvement as being something
altogether different from other types of
involvement in their previous educational
experiences. For example, one finding that
emerged from the participants’ experiences is
that graduate student involvement is entirely
different from undergraduate involvement. All
of the participants, with the exception of one,
were involved in their undergraduate experience
and talked about the differences between the
two types of involvement; however, even
James, the student who was not involved in
his undergraduate experience due to his
familial commitments, commented on the
difference of involvement in graduate school,
saying, “It’s just more important now. I mean
as an undergrad, there are probably not as
many opportunities. I didn’t see the link as
clearly as I do now. I just see the connection
for me now—it makes sense—whereas before,
I just didn’t.” Another student, Ellie, remarked,
“I think the biggest difference [between
undergraduate and graduate involvement] is
that I have a goal now, I have something that
I’m trying to achieve. In undergraduate there
wasn’t that kind of goal; there wasn’t that kind
of connection.” Daniel equally forwarded, “In
graduate school I feel that my selections were
a lot more deliberate. My decision to get
involved [was] well thought through and
planned.” All of the students, like Ellie, also
discussed the social aspects of undergraduate
involvement being more important to them at
that time than in graduate school. Anne said,
“My undergrad involvement was about a sense
of belonging, a sense of community, being part
of a group.” This is not to say, however, that
the students do not gain social connections
from their graduate level involvement, which
Anne further demonstrated in her comment,
“With the graduate [involvement], I would
have to say there’s a part of that because when
I moved here I didn’t know anybody and
wanting to meet people and be a part of the
university.”
What also came up over and over again
was the phrase “professional development” in
the students’ discussions about their involve
ment. Making a clear connection to the
theoretical framework of socialization, the
concept of professional development is often
used interchangeably in the literature on
professional socialization as the socialization
experienced by the graduate student that
prepares him or her both for the academic
world and its expectations while also preparing
them for the professional role and its associated
values and culture (Golde, �998). Like James’s
comment earlier, the students described a clear
link between their involvement and their
future professional goals, and Sara remarked
similarly:
I look at [graduate involvement] as
professional development as opposed to,
you know, in undergrad it didn’t feel that
way; it was almost more of a social type
interaction. I look at this as a logical part
of being a professional in the discipline.
Paul also remarked similarly, “Undergrad, I
guess, I didn’t see as professional development.
I guess I see more of the professional organiza
tions as being more professional development
affiliations.”
8 Journal of College Student Development
Gardner & Barnes
Graduate involvement was also described
by the participants as encompassing a different
level of commitment and having different
characteristics altogether. Conrad commented
at length on the differences involved:
In college, we just always did our own
thing. There was a right way to do things
and as long as everyone did their individual
jobs, which were not taxing—they were
not very rigorous—then you were fine and
you would get your picture in the year
book. Graduate school involvement I find
to be a little more rigorous but without
so much of the protocol, without so much
of the right way–wrong way. Graduate
student involvement is very adult; it’s very
independent and people are just free to
engage in ideas and to kind of do what
you want to do. It’s not as stringent as I
found college organizations to be.
Connecting these concepts, the students
also found the qualities of involvement to be
quite distinct depending on the type of
involvement. We asked the students about
their local involvement in student and campus
organizations as well as their involvement in
professional associations in order to understand
the multiple dimensions of involvement as well
as the different types of involvement open to
graduate students. Leslie talked about …
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