Fluent Essays

Cite the page number from the book from chapters 7,8,11 More than 500 words double spaced and please no plagiarism and type the answer  ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS NO  PLAGIARISM       WITH A CONCLUSION AT THE END Essentials of Sociology A Down-to-Earth Approach Thirteenth Edition James M. Henslin Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville 330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013 Acknowledgments of third party content appear on pages CR-1–CR-7, which constitutes an extension of this copyright page. Cultural Diversity Around the World: Doing Business in the Global Village box contains art with the following credit: Demashita! Powerpuff Girls Z © 2009 Cartoon Network, Toei Animation & Aniplex. All Rights Reserved. THE POWERPUFF GIRLS and all related characters and elements are trademarks of and © Cartoon Network. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2014, 2012 by James M. Henslin. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Rights & Permissions Department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. PEARSON and ALWAYS LEARNING are exclusive trademarks owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates in the United States and/or other countries. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Henslin, James M., author. Title: Essentials of sociology : a down-to-earth approach / James M. Henslin, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville. Description: Thirteenth edition. | Boston : Pearson, [2019] Identifiers: LCCN 2017048320 (print) | LCCN 2017052388 (ebook) | ISBN 9780134740041 (ebook) | ISBN 9780134736570 (student edition : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780134740003 (a la carte : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Sociology. Classification: LCC HM586 (ebook) | LCC HM586 .H43 2019 (print) | DDC 301— dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017048320 1 17 VP, Product Development: Dickson Musslewhite Portfolio Manager: Jeff Marshall Editorial Assistant: Christina Winterburn Development Editor: Jennifer Auvil (OPS) Program Team Lead: Amber Mackey Content Producer: Mary Donovan Director of Field Marketing: Jonathan Cottrell Field Marketer: Brittany Pogue-Mohammed Acosta Operations Manager: Mary Fischer Operations Specialist: Mary Ann Gloriande Director of Design: Blair Brown Cover Art Director: Kathryn Foot Cover Design: Lumina Digital Studio Project Manager: Rich Barnes Full-Service Project Management and Composition: Integra Printer/Binder: LSC Communications, Inc Cover Printer: Phoenix Color/Hagerstown Rental Edition ISBN 10: 0-13-473658-3 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-473658-7 Revel AC ISBN 10: 0-13-473989-2 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-473989-2 ALC ISBN 10: 0-13-473839-X ISBN 13: 978-0-13-473839-0 Instructor’s Resource Edition ISBN 10: 0-13-47385-4 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-473845-1 http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions/ https://lccn.loc.gov/2017048320 To my fellow sociologists, who do such creative research on social life and who communicate the sociological imagination to generations of students. With my sincere admiration and appreciation. 1 The Sociological Perspective 1 2 Culture 38 3 Socialization 68 4 Social Structure and Social Interaction 101 5 Social Groups and Formal Organizations 133 6 Deviance and Social Control 162 7 Global Stratification 195 8 Social Class in the United States 228 9 Race and Ethnicity 263 10 Gender and Age 303 11 Politics and the Economy 345 12 Marriage and Family 381 13 Education and Religion 415 14 Population and Urbanization 451 15 Social Change and the Environment 488 Brief Contents iv v To the Student ... from the Author xviii To the Instructor ... from the Author xix About the Author xxxvi 1 The Sociological Perspective 1 The Sociological Perspective 3 Seeing the Broader Social Context 3 The Global Context—and the Local 4 Origins of Sociology 4 Tradition versus Science 5 Auguste Comte and Positivism 5 Herbert Spencer and Social Darwinism 6 Karl Marx and Class Conflict 6 Emile Durkheim and Social Integration 7 APPLYING DURKHEIM 7 Max Weber and the Protestant Ethic 8 RELIGION AND THE ORIGIN OF CAPITALISM 8 Sociology in North America 9 Sexism at the Time: Women in Early Sociology 9 Racism at the Time: W. E. B. Du Bois 10 Jane Addams: Sociologist and Social Reformer 11 Talcott Parsons and C. Wright Mills: Theory versus Reform 12 The Continuing Tension: Basic, Applied, and Public Sociology 12 BASIC SOCIOLOGY 12 • APPLIED SOCIOLOGY 12 • PUBLIC SOCIOLOGY 12 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology 14 Symbolic Interactionism 14 SYMBOLS IN EVERYDAY LIFE 14 • IN SUM 15 • APPLYING SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 15 • IN SUM 16 Functional Analysis 16 ROBERT MERTON AND FUNCTIONALISM 16 • IN SUM 17 • APPLYING FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS 17 • IN SUM 17 Conflict Theory 18 KARL MARX AND CONFLICT THEORY 18 • CONFLICT THEORY TODAY 19 • FEMINISTS AND CONFLICT THEORY 19 • APPLYING CONFLICT THEORY 19 • IN SUM 19 Putting the Theoretical Perspectives Together 19 Levels of Analysis: Macro and Micro 19 How Theory and Research Work Together 20 Doing Sociological Research 21 A Research Model 21 Selecting a Topic 21 Defining the Problem 22 Reviewing the Literature 22 Formulating a Hypothesis 22 Choosing a Research Method 22 Collecting the Data 22 Analyzing the Results 23 Sharing the Results 23 Research Methods (Designs) 24 Surveys 25 SELECTING A SAMPLE 25 • ASKING NEUTRAL QUESTIONS 26 • TYPES OF QUESTIONS 27 • ESTABLISHING RAPPORT 27 Participant Observation (Fieldwork) 28 Case Studies 29 Secondary Analysis 30 Analysis of Documents 30 Experiments 30 Unobtrusive Measures 32 Gender in Sociological Research 32 Ethics in Sociological Research 33 Protecting the Subjects: The Brajuha Research 33 Misleading the Subjects: The Humphreys Research 34 Trends Shaping the Future of Sociology 34 Tension in Sociology: Research versus Social Reform 35 THREE STAGES IN SOCIOLOGY 35 • DIVERSITY OF ORIENTATIONS 35 Globalization 35 HOW GLOBALIZATION APPLIES TO THIS TEXT 35 Summary and Review 36 Thinking Critically about Chapter 1 37 2 Culture 38 What Is Culture? 40 Culture and Taken-for-Granted Orientations to Life 40 IN SUM 42 Practicing Cultural Relativism 43 ATTACK ON CULTURAL RELATIVISM 44 Components of Symbolic Culture 46 Gestures 46 MISUNDERSTANDING AND OFFENSE 46 • UNIVERSAL GESTURES? 47 Language 47 LANGUAGE ALLOWS HUMAN EXPERIENCE TO BE CUMULATIVE 48 • LANGUAGE PROVIDES A SOCIAL OR SHARED PAST 48 • LANGUAGE PROVIDES A SOCIAL OR SHARED FUTURE 48 • LANGUAGE ALLOWS SHARED PERSPECTIVES 48 • LANGUAGE ALLOWS SHARED, GOAL-DIRECTED BEHAVIOR 49 • IN SUM 50 Language and Perception: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 50 Values, Norms, and Sanctions 51 Folkways, Mores, and Taboos 52 Contents vi Contents Many Cultural Worlds 53 Subcultures 53 Countercultures 56 Values in U.S. Society 56 An Overview of U.S. Values 56 Value Clusters 57 Value Contradictions 58 An Emerging Value Cluster 58 IN SUM 59 When Values Clash 60 Values as Distorting Lenses 60 “Ideal” Culture Versus “Real” Culture 60 Cultural Universals 60 IN SUM 61 Sociobiology and Human Behavior 61 IN SUM 62 Technology in the Global Village 62 New Technology 62 Cultural Lag and Cultural Change 64 Technology and Cultural Leveling 64 CULTURAL DIFFUSION 64 • COMMUNICATION AND TRAVEL 65 • CULTURAL LEVELING 65 Summary and Review 66 Thinking Critically about Chapter 2 67 3 Socialization 68 Society Makes Us Human 70 Feral Children 71 Isolated Children 71 Institutionalized Children 72 THE ORPHANAGE EXPERIMENT IN THE UNITED STATES 72 • THE ORPHANAGE EXPERIMENT IN ROMANIA 73 • TIMING AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF GENIE 73 • IN SUM 73 Deprived Animals 73 IN SUM: SOCIETY MAKES US HUMAN 74 Socialization into the Self and Mind 74 Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self 74 IN SUM 75 Mead and Role Taking 75 IN SUM 76 Piaget and the Development of Reasoning 76 Global Aspects of the Self and Reasoning 77 Learning Personality, Morality, and Emotions 77 Freud and the Development of Personality 77 SOCIOLOGICAL EVALUATION 78 Kohlberg and the Development of Morality 78 KOHLBERG’S THEORY 78 • CRITICISMS OF KOHLBERG 79 • RESEARCH WITH BABIES 79 • THE CULTURAL RELATIVITY OF MORALITY 79 Socialization into Emotions 79 GLOBAL EMOTIONS 79 • EXPRESSING EMOTIONS: “GENDER RULES” 79 • THE EXTENT OF “FEELING RULES” 80 • WHAT WE FEEL 80 • RESEARCH NEEDED 80 Society within Us: The Self and Emotions as a Social Mirror 81 IN SUM 81 Socialization into Gender 81 Learning the Gender Map 81 Gender Messages in the Family 82 PARENTS 82 • TOYS AND PLAY 82 • SAME-SEX PARENTS 84 Gender Messages from Peers 84 Gender Messages in the Mass Media 85 TELEVISION, MOVIES, AND CARTOONS 85 • VIDEO GAMES 85 • ADVERTISING 85 • IN SUM 86 Agents of Socialization 86 The Family 87 SOCIAL CLASS AND TYPE OF WORK 87 • SOCIAL CLASS AND PLAY 87 The Neighborhood 87 Religion 88 Day Care 88 The School 89 Peer Groups 90 The Workplace 92 Resocialization 92 Total Institutions 92 Socialization through the Life Course 94 Childhood (from birth to about age 12) 94 IN SUM 95 Adolescence (ages 13–17) 95 Transitional Adulthood (ages 18–29) 96 “BRING YOUR PARENTS TO WORK DAY” 96 The Middle Years (ages 30–65) 96 THE EARLY MIDDLE YEARS (AGES 30–49) 96 • THE LATER MIDDLE YEARS (AGES 50–65) 97 The Older Years (about age 65 on) 97 THE TRANSITIONAL OLDER YEARS (AGES 65–74) 97 • THE LATER OLDER YEARS (AGE 75 OR SO) 97 Are We Prisoners of Socialization? 98 Summary and Review 99 Thinking Critically about Chapter 3 100 4 Social Structure and Social Interaction 101 Levels of Sociological Analysis 103 Macrosociology and Microsociology 103 The Macrosociological Perspective: Social Structure 104 The Sociological Significance of Social Structure 104 IN SUM 105 Components of Social Structure 105 Culture 106 Social Class 106 Social Status 106 STATUS SETS 106 • ASCRIBED AND ACHIEVED STATUSES 106 • STATUS SYMBOLS 107 • MASTER STATUSES 107 • STATUS INCONSISTENCY 107 Contents vii Roles 108 Groups 108 Social Institutions 109 Comparing Functionalist and Conflict Perspectives 109 THE FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE 109 • THE CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE 111 • IN SUM 111 Changes in Social Structure 111 What Holds Society Together? 111 MECHANICAL AND ORGANIC SOLIDARITY 111 • GEMEINSCHAFT AND GESELLSCHAFT 112 • HOW RELEVANT ARE THESE CONCEPTS TODAY? 112 • IN SUM 113 The Microsociological Perspective: Social Interaction in Everyday Life 114 Symbolic Interaction 114 Stereotypes in Everyday Life 114 Personal Space 118 Eye Contact 119 Smiling 119 Body Language 119 APPLIED BODY LANGUAGE 119 Dramaturgy: The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life 119 Stages 120 Role Performance, Conflict, and Strain 120 Sign-Vehicles 121 Teamwork 123 Becoming the Roles We Play 123 APPLYING IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT 123 Ethnomethodology: Uncovering Background Assumptions 124 IN SUM 125 The Social Construction of Reality 125 Gynecological Examinations 126 IN SUM 127 The Need for Both Macrosociology and Microsociology 127 Summary and Review 131 Thinking Critically about Chapter 4 132 5 Social Groups and Formal Organizations 133 Groups within Society 135 Primary Groups 135 PRODUCING A MIRROR WITHIN 137 Secondary Groups 137 VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS 137 • THE INNER CIRCLE 137 • THE IRON LAW OF OLIGARCHY 138 In-Groups and Out-Groups 138 SHAPING PERCEPTION AND MORALITY 138 Reference Groups 139 EVALUATING OURSELVES 139 • EXPOSURE TO CONTRADICTORY STANDARDS IN A SOCIALLY DIVERSE SOCIETY 140 Social Networks 140 THE SMALL WORLD PHENOMENON 142 • IS THE SMALL WORLD PHENOMENON AN ACADEMIC MYTH? 142 • BUILDING UNINTENTIONAL BARRIERS 142 Bureaucracies 143 The Characteristics of Bureaucracies 144 Goal Displacement and the Perpetuation of Bureaucracies 146 Dysfunctions of Bureaucracies 147 RED TAPE: A RULE IS A RULE 147 • ALIENATION OF WORKERS 147 • RESISTING ALIENATION 148 Working for the Corporation 148 Self-Fulfilling Stereotypes in the “Hidden” Corporate Culture 148 SELF-FULFILLING STEREOTYPES AND PROMOTIONS 148 Diversity in the Workplace 149 Technology and the Maximum-Security Society 150 Group Dynamics 151 Effects of Group Size on Stability and Intimacy 151 Effects of Group Size on Attitudes and Behavior 152 LABORATORY FINDINGS AND THE REAL WORLD 153 Leadership 155 WHO BECOMES A LEADER? 155 • TYPES OF LEADERS 155 • LEADERSHIP STYLES 155 • LEADERSHIP STYLES IN CHANGING SITUATIONS 156 The Power of Peer Pressure: The Asch Experiment 157 The Power of Authority: The Milgram Experiment 158 Global Consequences of Group Dynamics: Groupthink 159 PREVENTING GROUPTHINK 160 Summary and Review 160 Thinking Critically about Chapter 5 161 6 Deviance and Social Control 162 What is Deviance? 164 A Neutral Term 164 STIGMA 164 Deviance Is Relative 164 How Norms Make Social Life Possible 166 Sanctions 166 IN SUM 166 Competing Explanations of Deviance: Sociobiology, Psychology, and Sociology 167 Biosocial Explanations 167 Psychological Explanations 167 Sociological Explanations 168 The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 168 Differential Association Theory 168 THE THEORY 168 • FAMILIES 168 • FRIENDS, NEIGHBORHOODS, AND SUBCULTURES 168 • DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION IN THE CYBER AGE 169 • PRISON OR FREEDOM? 169 Control Theory 170 THE THEORY 170 Labeling Theory 172 REJECTING LABELS: HOW PEOPLE NEUTRALIZE DEVIANCE 172 • EMBRACING LABELS: THE EXAMPLE OF OUTLAW BIKERS 173 • LABELS CAN BE POWERFUL 173 • HOW DO LABELS WORK? 174 • IN SUM 174 The Functionalist Perspective 175 Can Deviance Really Be Functional for Society? 175 Strain Theory: How Mainstream Values Produce Deviance 175 FOUR DEVIANT PATHS 176 • IN SUM 176 Illegitimate Opportunity Structures: Social Class and Crime 176 STREET CRIME 176 • WHITE-COLLAR CRIME 178 • GENDER AND CRIME 179 • IN SUM 180 The Conflict Perspective 180 Class, Crime, and the Criminal Justice System 180 The Criminal Justice System as an Instrument of Oppression 180 IN SUM 181 Reactions to Deviance 181 Street Crime and Prisons 182 The Decline of Violent Crime 185 Recidivism 185 The Death Penalty and Bias 186 GEOGRAPHY 187 • SOCIAL CLASS 188 • GENDER 188 • RACE–ETHNICITY 188 The Trouble with Official Statistics 190 The Medicalization of Deviance: Mental Illness 191 NEITHER MENTAL NOR ILLNESS? 191 • THE HOMELESS MENTALLY ILL 192 The Need for a More Humane Approach 193 Summary and Review 193 Thinking Critically about Chapter 6 194 7 Global Stratification 195 Systems of Social Stratification 197 Slavery 198 CAUSES OF SLAVERY 198 • CONDITIONS OF SLAVERY 199 • BONDED LABOR IN THE NEW WORLD 199 • SLAVERY IN THE NEW WORLD 199 • SLAVERY TODAY 200 Caste 200 INDIA’S RELIGIOUS CASTES 200 • SOUTH AFRICA 201 • A U.S. RACIAL CASTE SYSTEM 202 Estate 203 WOMEN IN THE ESTATE SYSTEM 203 Class 204 Global Stratification and the Status of Females 204 The Global Superclass 204 What Determines Social Class? 205 Karl Marx: The Means of Production 205 Max Weber: Property, Power, and Prestige 206 IN SUM 206 Why Is Social Stratification Universal? 206 The Functionalist View: Motivating Qualified People 207 DAVIS AND MOORE’S EXPLANATION 207 • TUMIN’S CRITIQUE OF DAVIS AND MOORE 207 • IN SUM 208 The Conflict Perspective: Class Conflict and Scarce Resources 208 MOSCA’S ARGUMENT 208 • MARX’S ARGUMENT 209 • CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF CONFLICT THEORY 209 Lenski’s Synthesis 209 IN SUM 209 How Do Elites Maintain Stratification? 210 Soft Control versus Force 210 CONTROLLING PEOPLE’S IDEAS 210 • CONTROLLING INFORMATION 211 • STIFLING CRITICISM 211 • BIG BROTHER TECHNOLOGY 211 • IN SUM 211 Comparative Social Stratification 212 Social Stratification in Great Britain 212 Social Stratification in the Former Soviet Union 212 Global Stratification: Three Worlds 213 The Most Industrialized Nations 214 The Industrializing Nations 217 The Least Industrialized Nations 218 Modifying the Model 218 How Did the World’s Nations Become Stratified? 221 Colonialism 221 World System Theory 222 Culture of Poverty 223 Evaluating the Theories 223 Maintaining Global Stratification 224 Neocolonialism 224 RELEVANCE TODAY 224 Multinational Corporations 224 BUYING POLITICAL STABILITY 225 • UNANTICIPATED CONSEQUENCES 225 Technology and Global Domination 225 Strains in the Global System: Uneasy Realignments 226 Summary and Review 226 Thinking Critically about Chapter 7 227 8 Social Class in the United States 228 What Is Social Class? 230 Property 230 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN WEALTH AND INCOME 230 • DISTRIBUTION OF PROPERTY 231 • DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME 231 Power 234 THE DEMOCRATIC FACADE 234 • THE POWER ELITE 234 Prestige 235 OCCUPATIONS AND PRESTIGE 235 • DISPLAYING PRESTIGE 235 Status Inconsistency 236 Sociological Models of Social Class 238 Updating Marx 238 Updating Weber 239 THE CAPITALIST CLASS 240 • THE UPPER-MIDDLE CLASS 240 • THE LOWER-MIDDLE CLASS 241 • THE WORKING CLASS 241 • THE WORKING POOR 241 • THE UNDERCLASS 242 Consequences of Social Class 242 Physical Health 243 Mental Health 243 Family Life 244 CHOICE OF HUSBAND OR WIFE 244 • DIVORCE 244 • CHILD REARING 244 viii Contents Education 244 Religion 245 Politics 245 Crime and Criminal Justice 246 Social Mobility 246 Three Types of Social Mobility 246 Women in Studies of Social Mobility 248 The Pain of Social Mobility: Two Distinct Worlds 249 Poverty 251 Drawing the Poverty Line 251 Who Are the Poor? 253 BREAKING A MYTH 253 • THE GEOGRAPHY OF POVERTY 253 • EDUCATION 254 • FAMILY STRUCTURE: THE FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY 254 • RACE– ETHNICITY 254 • AGE AND POVERTY 255 Children of Poverty 255 The Dynamics of Poverty versus the Culture of Poverty 257 Why Are People Poor? 257 Deferred Gratification 257 Where Is Horatio Alger? The Social Functions of a Myth 259 Peering into the Future: Will We Live in a Three-Tier Society? 260 Summary and Review 261 Thinking Critically about Chapter 8 262 9 Race and Ethnicity 263 Laying the Sociological Foundation 265 Race: Reality and Myth 265 THE REALITY OF HUMAN VARIETY 265 • THE MYTH OF PURE RACES 265 • THE MYTH OF A FIXED NUMBER OF RACES 266 • THE MYTH OF RACIAL SUPERIORITY 267 • THE MYTH CONTINUES 268 Ethnic Groups 269 Minority Groups and Dominant Groups 269 NOT SIZE, BUT DOMINANCE AND DISCRIMINATION 269 • EMERGENCE OF MINORITY GROUPS 269 Ethnic Work: Constructing Our Racial–Ethnic Identity 270 Prejudice and Discrimination 270 Learning Prejudice 270 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION 272 • LEARNING PREJUDICE FROM ASSOCIATING WITH OTHERS 272 • THE FAR-REACHING NATURE OF PREJUDICE 273 • INTERNALIZING DOMINANT NORMS 275 Individual and Institutional Discrimination 275 HOME MORTGAGES 275 • HEALTH CARE 276 Theories of Prejudice 276 Psychological Perspectives 277 FRUSTRATION AND SCAPEGOATS 277 • THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY 277 Sociological Perspectives 278 FUNCTIONALISM 278 • CONFLICT THEORY 278 • SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 279 • HOW LABELS CREATE PREJUDICE 279 • LABELS AND SELF-FULFILLING STEREOTYPES 279 Global Patterns of Intergroup Relations 281 Genocide 281 IN SUM 282 Population Transfer 282 Internal Colonialism 282 Segregation 282 Assimilation 283 Multiculturalism (Pluralism) 283 Racial–Ethnic Relations in the United States 283 European Americans 284 IN SUM 285 Latinos (Hispanics) 286 UMBRELLA TERM 286 • COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN 286 • UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS 287 • RESIDENCE 288 • SPANISH 288 • ECONOMIC WELL-BEING 289 • POLITICS 290 African Americans 290 RISING EXPECTATIONS AND CIVIL STRIFE 291 • CONTINUED GAINS 291 • CURRENT LOSSES 292 • RACE OR SOCIAL CLASS? A SOCIOLOGICAL DEBATE 292 • RACISM AS AN EVERYDAY BURDEN 293 Asian Americans 293 A BACKGROUND OF DISCRIMINATION 293 • DIVERSITY 294 • REASONS FOR FINANCIAL SUCCESS 294 • POLITICS 294 Native Americans 295 DIVERSITY OF GROUPS 295 • FROM TREATIES TO GENOCIDE AND POPULATION TRANSFER 295 • THE INVISIBLE MINORITY AND SELF-DETERMINATION 296 • THE CASINOS 296 • DETERMINING IDENTITY AND GOALS 297 Looking toward the Future 297 The Immigration Controversy 297 The Affirmative Action Controversy 299 A BRIEF HISTORY 299 • SUPREME COURT RULINGS 299 • THE BAMBOO CURTAIN 299 • THE POTENTIAL SOLUTION 299 Less Racism 300 Toward a True Multicultural Society 300 Summary and Review 300 Thinking Critically about Chapter 9 302 10 Gender and Age 303 Inequalities of Gender 305 Issues of Sex and Gender 305 The Sociological Significance of Gender 305 Gender Differences in Behavior: Biology or Culture? 307 The Dominant Position in Sociology 307 Opening the Door to Biology 307 A MEDICAL ACCIDENT 307 • THE VIETNAM VETERANS STUDY 308 • MORE RESEARCH ON HUMANS 308 • IN SUM 309 Gender Inequality in Global Perspective 312 How Did Females Become a Minority Group? 312 GLOBAL VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 313 • IN SUM 315 Gender Inequality in the United States 315 Fighting Back: The Rise of Feminism 315 Gender Inequality in Health Care 318 Contents ix Gender Inequality in Education 319 THE PAST 319 • A FUNDAMENTAL CHANGE 320 • GENDER TRACKING 321 Gender Inequality in the Workplace 322 The Pay Gap 322 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 322 • GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS 322 • THE “TESTOSTERONE BONUS” 322 • REASONS FOR THE GENDER PAY GAP 324 • THE CEO POWER GAP—AND THE NEW FEMALE PREMIUM 325 Is the Glass Ceiling Cracking? 326 Sexual Harassment—and Worse 326 LABELS AND PERCEPTION 327 • NOT JUST A “MAN THING” 327 • SEXUAL ORIENTATION 327 Gender and Violence 327 Violence against Women 327 FORCIBLE RAPE 327 • DATE (ACQUAINTANCE) RAPE 328 • MURDER 328 • VIOLENCE IN THE HOME 329 • FEMINISM AND GENDERED VIOLENCE 329 • SOLUTIONS 329 The Changing Face of Politics 329 Glimpsing the Future—with Hope 330 Inequalities of Aging 330 Aging in Global Perspective 331 Extremes of Attitudes and Practices 331 IN SUM 331 Industrialization and the Graying of the Globe 332 THE LIFE SPAN 332 The Graying of America 333 The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 335 Shifting Meanings of Growing Old 335 The Influence of the Mass Media 336 IN SUM 336 The Functionalist Perspective 337 Disengagement Theory 337 EVALUATION OF THE THEORY 337 Activity Theory 337 EVALUATION OF THE THEORY 338 Continuity Theory 338 EVALUATION OF THE THEORY 338 • IN SUM: THE FUNCTIONALIST PERSECTIVE 338 The Conflict Perspective 339 Fighting for Resources: Social Security Legislation 339 “Old People Are Sucking Us Dry”: Intergenerational Competition and Conflict 339 IN SUM: THE CONFICT PERSPECTIVE 340 Looking toward the Future 342 New Views: Creative Aging 342 Summary and Review 342 Thinking Critically about Chapter 10 344 11 Politics and the Economy 345 Politics: Establishing and Exercising Leadership 347 Power, Authority, and Violence 347 Authority and Legitimate Violence 347 Traditional Authority 348 Rational–Legal Authority 349 Charismatic Authority 349 THE THREAT POSED BY CHARISMATIC LEADERS 349 The Transfer of Authority 350 Types of Government 350 Monarchies: The Rise of the State 350 Democracies: Citizenship as a Revolutionary Idea 351 Dictatorships and Oligarchies: The Seizure of Power 353 The U.S. Political System 353 Political Parties and Elections 353 Polling and Predictions 354 SLICES FROM THE CENTER 355 • THIRD PARTIES 355 Voting Patterns 355 SOCIAL INTEGRATION 356 • ALIENATION 357 • APATHY 357 • THE GENDER AND RACIAL–ETHNIC GAPS IN VOTING 357 Lobbyists and Special-Interest Groups 358 LOBBYING BY SPECIAL-INTEREST GROUPS 358 • THE MONEY 358 Who Rules the United States? 359 The Functionalist Perspective: Pluralism 359 IN SUM 359 The Conflict Perspective: The Power Elite 360 IN SUM 360 Which View Is Right? 360 War and Terrorism: Implementing Political Objectives 361 Why Countries Go to War 361 THE FLESH AND BLOOD OF WAR 362 Terrorism 362 The Economy: Work in the Global Village 363 The Transformation of Economic Systems 364 Preindustrial Societies: The Birth of Inequality 364 Industrial Societies: The Birth of the Machine 365 Postindustrial Societies: The Birth of the Information Age 365 Biotech Societies: The Merger of Biology and Economics 366 World Economic Systems 367 Capitalism 367 WHAT CAPITALISM IS 367 • WHAT STATE CAPITALISM IS 367 Socialism 368 WHAT SOCIALISM IS 368 • SOCIALISM IN PRACTICE 369 • DEMOCRATIC SOCIALISM 369 Ideologies of Capitalism and Socialism 369 Criticisms of Capitalism and Socialism 369 The Convergence of Capitalism and Socialism 370 CHANGES IN SOCIALISM: CONVERGENCE 370 • CHANGES IN CAPITALISM: CONVERGENCE 372 The Globalization of Capitalism 372 A New Global Structure and its Effects on Workers 372 Stagnant Paychecks 375 The New Economic System and the Old Divisions of Wealth 375 The Global Superclass 377 x Contents What Lies Ahead? A New World Order? 377 Unity and Disunity 378 Inevitable Changes 378 Summary and Review 378 Thinking Critically about Chapter 11 380 12 Marriage and Family 381 Marriage and Family in Global Perspective 383 What Is a Family? 383 What Is Marriage? 384 Common Cultural Themes 384 MATE SELECTION 384 • DESCENT 386 • INHERITANCE 386 • AUTHORITY 386 Marriage and Family in Theoretical Perspective 386 The Functionalist Perspective: Functions and Dysfunctions 386 WHY THE FAMILY IS UNIVERSAL 387 • FUNCTIONS OF THE INCEST TABOO 387 • ISOLATION AND EMOTIONAL OVERLOAD 387 The Conflict Perspective: Struggles between Husbands and Wives 387 INEVITABLE CONFLICT 387 • CHANGING POWER RELATIONS 387 The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: Gender, Housework, and Child Care 388 CHANGES IN TRADITIONAL GENDER ORIENTATIONS 388 • PAID WORK AND HOUSEWORK 388 • MORE CHILD CARE 389 • TOTAL HOURS 389 • A GENDER DIVISION OF LABOR 389 The Family Life Cycle 389 Love and Courtship in Global Perspective 389 Marriage 391 THE SOCIAL CHANNELS OF LOVE AND MARRIAGE 391 Childbirth 392 IDEAL FAMILY SIZE 392 • MARITAL SATISFACTION AFTER CHILDBIRTH 394 Child Rearing 394 MARRIED COUPLES AND SINGLE MOTHERS 394 • SINGLE FATHERS 394 • DAY CARE 394 • NANNIES 395 • SOCIAL CLASS 395 • HELICOPTER PARENTING 396 • THE RIGHT WAY TO REAR CHILDREN 396 Family transitions 397 TRANSITIONAL ADULTHOOD 397 • WIDOWHOOD 397 Diversity in U.S. Families 398 African American Families 398 Latino Families 399 Asian American Families 400 Native American Families 400 IN SUM 400 One-Parent Families 401 Couples without Children 401 Blended Families 402 Gay and Lesbian Families 402 CHILDREN REARED BY GAY AND LESBIAN COUPLES 403 Trends in U.S. Families 403 The Changing Timetable of Family Life: Marriage and Childbirth 403 Cohabitation 404 COHABITATION AND MARRIAGE: THE ESSENTIAL DIFFERENCE 404 • DOES COHABITATION MAKE MARRIAGE STRONGER? 405 The “Sandwich Generation” and Elder Care 405 Divorce and Remarriage 405 Ways of Measuring Divorce 405 Divorce and Mixed Racial–Ethnic Marriages 407 Symbolic Interactionism and the Misuse of Statistics 407 Children of Divorce 408 NEGATIVE EFFECTS 408 • WHAT HELPS CHILDREN ADJUST TO DIVORCE? 408 • PERPETUATING DIVORCE 409 Grandchildren of Divorce: Ripples to the Future 409 Fathers’ Contact with Children after Divorce 409 The Ex-Spouses 409 Remarriage: “I Do” Again and Again 410 Two Sides of Family Life 410 The Dark Side of Family Life: Battering, Child Abuse, Marital Rape, and Incest 410 SPOUSE BATTERING 410 • CHILD ABUSE 410 • MARITAL AND INTIMACY RAPE 411 • INCEST 411 …