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Provide a critical analysis for the below articles (not summarizing ) . Responses to each question must be at least 250 words Grand Valley State University [email protected] Peer Reviewed Articles Psychology Department 2012 Sex Differences in Sports Across 50 Societies Robert O. Deaner Grand Valley State University, [email protected] Brandt A. Smith University of Texas at El Paso Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/psy_articles This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Psychology Department at [email protected] It has been accepted for inclusion in Peer Reviewed Articles by an authorized administrator of [email protected] For more information, please contact [email protected] Recommended Citation Deaner, Robert O. and Smith, Brandt A., "Sex Differences in Sports Across 50 Societies" (2012). Peer Reviewed Articles. 2. https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/psy_articles/2 https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu?utm_source=scholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fpsy_articles%2F2&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/psy_articles?utm_source=scholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fpsy_articles%2F2&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/psy?utm_source=scholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fpsy_articles%2F2&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/psy_articles?utm_source=scholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fpsy_articles%2F2&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/psy_articles/2?utm_source=scholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fpsy_articles%2F2&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages mailto:[email protected] http://ccr.sagepub.com/ Cross-Cultural Research http://ccr.sagepub.com/content/early/2012/10/25/1069397112463687 The online version of this article can be found at: DOI: 10.1177/1069397112463687 published online 29 October 2012Cross-Cultural Research Robert O. Deaner and Brandt A. Smith Sex Differences in Sports Across 50 Societies - Jul 9, 2013version of this article was published on more recent A Published by: http://www.sagepublications.com On behalf of: Society for Cross-Cultural Research Sponsored by the Human Relations Area Files can be found at:Cross-Cultural ResearchAdditional services and information for http://ccr.sagepub.com/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts: http://ccr.sagepub.com/subscriptionsSubscriptions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.navReprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: What is This? - Oct 29, 2012OnlineFirst Version of Record >> - Jul 9, 2013Version of Record at GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIV LIB on July 24, 2013ccr.sagepub.comDownloaded from http://ccr.sagepub.com/ http://ccr.sagepub.com/content/early/2012/10/25/1069397112463687 http://ccr.sagepub.com/content/47/3/268 http://www.sagepublications.com http://www.sccr.org http://www.yale.edu/hraf http://ccr.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts http://ccr.sagepub.com/subscriptions http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav http://ccr.sagepub.com/content/47/3/268.full.pdf http://ccr.sagepub.com/content/early/2012/10/25/1069397112463687.full.pdf http://online.sagepub.com/site/sphelp/vorhelp.xhtml http://ccr.sagepub.com/ Cross-Cultural Research XX(X) 1 –42 © 2012 SAGE Publications Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1069397112463687 http://ccr.sagepub.com 463687CCRXXX10.1177/106939711246368 7Cross-Cultural ResearchDeaner and Smith © 2011 SAGE Publications Reprints and permission: http://www. sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav 1Grand Valley State University, Allendale, MI, USA 2University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA Corresponding Author: Robert O. Deaner, 1 Campus Drive, Department of Psychology, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, MI 49401, USA Email: [email protected] Sex Differences in Sports Across 50 Societies Robert O. Deaner1 and Brandt A. Smith2 Abstract Sports have been frequently explored in cross-cultural studies, yet scant atten- tion has been paid to female participation. Here we coded the occurrence of sports and related activities for males and females in the societies comprising the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) probability sample. We then tested several predictions derived from evolutionary theory. As predicted, in all 50 societies with documented sports, there were more male sports than female sports; hunting and combat sports were almost exclusively male activities; and the sex difference in sports was greater in patriarchal than in nonpatriarchal societies. These results show that a robust sex difference in direct physical competition co-occurs with meaningful variation in its expression. Keywords evolutionary psychology, anthropology, athletics, competitiveness, gender differences, aggression, universal A game can be defined as an organized activity where two or more sides compete to win according to agreed-upon rules (Chick, 1984; Guttmann, 2004; Roberts, Arth, & Bush, 1959). Games occur in most or all societies (Chick, 1984, 1998; Craig, 2002; Sutton-Smith & Roberts, 1981), and, from at GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIV LIB on July 24, 2013ccr.sagepub.comDownloaded from http://ccr.sagepub.com/ 2 Cross-Cultural Research XX(X) a cross-cultural perspective, they are the most extensively studied expressive, noninstrumental aspect of culture (Chick, 2000). Previous studies have revealed, for example, that games of chance are associated with supernatural involvement in human affairs (Roberts et al., 1959), combative games cor- relate with the frequency of homicide (Chick, Loy, & Miracle,1997) and war- fare (Sipes, 1973; see also Chick et al.,1997; Schlegel & Herbert, 1989), and games of strategy are associated with the severity of child training (Roberts & Sutton-Smith, 1962) and societal complexity (Chick, 1998; Roberts et al., 1959; Roberts & Barry, 1976; Sutton-Smith & Roberts, 1970). Surprisingly, the sex of game participants has received almost no attention in previous cross-cultural studies (but see Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). This neglect might be due to assumptions that only males substantially participate or that there is insufficient information available for coding participants’ sex in most societies. In any event, the present study is designed to redress this gap. In particular, we will systematically code participants’ sex in games and related activities for the 60 societies in the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) probability sample (Lagacé, 1979; Naroll, 1967). We will then test predictions regarding sex differences in participation and attempt to link vari- ation in sex differences to social structure. For two reasons, our study focuses on games that require physical skill, which we hereafter call “sports” (see Loy & Coakley, 2007). First, sports are by far the most common kind of game across societies (Chick, 1998; Roberts et al., 1959; Roberts & Sutton-Smith, 1962). Second, the theoretical predic- tions regarding sex differences seem strongest for sports (see below). Nonetheless, we will code other kinds of games, and some of our predictions address them. We note that Schlegel and Herbert (1989) assessed the occurrence and importance of competitive games for male and female adolescents in the 186 societies that comprise the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (Murdock & White, 1969). They reported that competitive games for males were doc- umented in 60% of societies, whereas competitive games for females occurred in 30% of societies. Although highly valuable, this study did not differentiate kinds of games (i.e., sports, games of chance, games of strat- egy) or report whether there were any societies where female participation was similar to or greater than male participation. In the next section, we provide the theoretical rationale for a hypothesis of a pronounced sex difference in sports participation and develop specific pre- dictions to test it. We conclude the Introduction with a section explaining why variation in sex differences can be predicted to correlate with social structure, especially the empowerment of women. at GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIV LIB on July 24, 2013ccr.sagepub.comDownloaded from http://ccr.sagepub.com/ Deaner and Smith 3 Sex Differences Numerous functions for sports have been hypothesized, all of which appear mutually compatible (Chick, 1984; Lombardo, 2012; Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). However, from an evolutionary perspective (i.e., linked to survival and reproduction), three hypotheses seem plausible (Lombardo, 2012). First, sports may function as culturally invented courtship rituals that reliably advertise quality to the opposite sex (de Block & Dewitte, 2009; Miller, 2000). Second, sports may function as physical competitions for status, dif- fering from unrestrained combat or warfare because they reduce the risk of physical harm to competitors and more publicly and efficiently reveal the competitors’ underlying competitive qualities (de Block & Dewitte, 2009; Faurie, Pontier, & Raymond, 2004; Lombardo, 2012; see also Miller, 2000). Third, sports may function to build skills necessary for physically demanding activities, especially combat, warfare, and hunting (e.g., Chick et al., 1997; Craig, 2002; Lombardo, 2012; Sipes, 1973). To the extent that these hypotheses hold, especially the second and third hypotheses, it can be further hypothesized that, compared to girls and women, boys and men will, on average, have a far greater motivational pre- disposition to participate and monitor sports, especially sports involving combat-relevant skills and/or team play. This hypothesis follows from the following points. First, throughout human evolutionary history and during contemporary periods, men have been substantially more likely than women to engage in contests involving extreme physical aggression (Archer, 2009; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Walker, 2001), between-group raiding and warfare (Adams, 1983; Gat, 2006; Keeley, 1996), and cooperative hunting of large game (Marlowe, 2007; Murdock & Provost, 1973). Second, this history is revealed by pronounced sexual dimorphism in strength and related attri- butes (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Mayhew & Salm, 1990; Seiler, De Koning, & Foster, 2007). Similarly, men (but not women) possess secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., beards, pronounced jaws, deep voices) that function to threaten rivals (Neave & Shields, 2008; Puts, 2010). Third, another legacy of this history is a predisposition(s) to behaviorally prepare for physical contests, both individually and in groups. This is indicated by the fact that in all societies studied so far, boys engage in more rough-and-tumble play and play-fighting (DiPietro, 1981; Geary, 2010; Whiting & Edwards, 1973, 1988). Studies also consistently indicate that boys are more likely to form large same-sex groups, to differentiate roles within such groups, and to seek competition with other groups (Geary, 2010; Lever, 1978; Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Fourth, several kinds of evidence indicate that these sex-differentiated at GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIV LIB on July 24, 2013ccr.sagepub.comDownloaded from http://ccr.sagepub.com/ 4 Cross-Cultural Research XX(X) play patterns are due, at least in part, to boys’ typically greater exposure to androgens prior to birth (Berenbaum & Beltz, 2011). There is considerable evidence for the hypothesis that males have an inborn predisposition to be interested in sports. First, studies in large contemporary societies ubiquitously report greater male interest in participating, watching, and excelling in sports. Evidence comes from self-reports of interest (summa- rized in Ellis et al., 2008) and from actual participation (e.g., Larson & Verma, 1999; Lunn, 2010; Stamatakis & Chaudhury, 2008). There is even a large sex difference in sports interest and participation in the contemporary United States, a society where great efforts have been made to equalize opportunities for females (Deaner et al., 2012). Second, females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (a disease characterized by heightened prenatal androgen expo- sure) are more likely than typical females to show strong interest in stereotypi- cally masculine sports (Berenbaum, 1999; Berenbaum & Snyder, 1995; Frisén et al., 2009). Third, historical reviews of sports in large, literate societies docu- ment that many societies had substantial female participation, but males are reported as being substantially more involved in most or all cases (Craig, 2002; Guttmann, 1991, 2004). Finally, as noted above, cross-cultural ethnographic studies of sports appear consistent with the prediction of greater male participa- tion (e.g., Chick, 1984, 1998; Chick et al., 1997; Roberts et al., 1959; Sipes, 1973), and this is true of the one study that provided the most direct evidence (Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). For the present study, it would be desirable to obtain data on the frequency of sports participation, but this cannot be extracted from ethnographic materials. Instead, we will focus on documenting the number of games and sports described in each society and whether males, females, or both regularly participate. To address the possibility that a larger number of male games might merely reflect ethnographers focusing more attention on males, we will also code nonsport games and noncompetitive play activities (i.e., amusements: see Roberts et al., 1959; Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). If there is substantial ethnographer bias, the sex difference should be similar in sports and in these other activities. Additional predictions can be derived from the hypothesis of an evolved male tendency to be interested in sports. First, the sex difference should be especially pronounced for combat sports, such as wrestling and boxing, and for hunting sports, such as archery and spear throwing. The basis for this prediction is that combat and hunting generally have been male activities dur- ing human evolutionary history (see above). Nonetheless, sports that do not involve actions directly related to combat or hunting are still expected to show greater male participation because males appear generally more predis- posed to engage in direct competition of almost any kind (Campbell, 1999, at GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIV LIB on July 24, 2013ccr.sagepub.comDownloaded from http://ccr.sagepub.com/ Deaner and Smith 5 2002; Deaner, 2012; Niederle & Vesterlund, 2011). Furthermore, many sports that do not require actions patently used in combat or hunting require related skills. For example, baseball, although not a hunting or combat sport, involves running, overhand throwing, and tracking projectiles. A second prediction is that the sex difference should be especially pro- nounced for sports involving physical contact between opponents. This pre- diction follows because combative sports invariably entail aggressive physical contact and even noncombat sports often involve this. Thus, males are expected to participate relatively more in sports involving physical con- tact, even after combat and hunting sports are excluded. A third prediction is that the sex difference should be especially pro- nounced for team sports rather than individual sports. This prediction follows from the male predispositions hypothesis because team sports require both motivation to engage in physical competition and motivation to engage in cooperative group challenges, especially in between-group contexts. Both kinds of motivation apparently are greater in males (Campbell, 1999, 2002; Geary Byrd-Craven, Hoard, Vigil, & Numtee, 2003; Puts, 2010; Rose & Rudolph, 2006; van Vugt, 2009). However, individual sports require only one kind of motivation, whereas team sports require both, suggesting that the sex difference should be larger there. Female Power Although we anticipate that males’ sports participation will be substantially greater than females’ in most or all societies, there is evidence of appreciable female sports participation in many of them (Craig, 2002; Guttmann, 1991; Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). Although we know of no existing framework to predict the cross-cultural variation, the three functional hypotheses outlined above provide a useful starting point. If sports function, first, as culturally invented courtship rituals (de Block & Dewitte, 2009; Miller, 2000) or, second, as physical competitions for status that publicly and efficiently reveal underlying competitive qualities (de Block & Dewitte, 2009; Faurie et al., 2004; Lombardo, 2012), then females might be expected to participate in sports more in societies where females compete more to be chosen as mates or to gain status. There is a problem with this hypothesis, however: The qualities females mainly advertise when seeking mates or com- peting for status are physical attractiveness (e.g., youthfulness, femininity, health) and personal integrity (e.g., good sexual reputation; Campbell, 1999, 2002; Cashdan, 1996; Schmitt & Buss, 1996), and these qualities do not seem emphasized in most sports, which generally involve direct (i.e., simultaneous) at GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIV LIB on July 24, 2013ccr.sagepub.comDownloaded from http://ccr.sagepub.com/ 6 Cross-Cultural Research XX(X) competition and potential physical contact. Indeed, playing sports is associated with greater attractiveness and higher status for males but not for females (Holland & Andre, 1994; see also Brewer & Howarth, 2012; Chase & Dummer, 1992). Similarly, physical dominance (a typical correlate of sport success) gen- erally increases the attractiveness of men but not of women (Bryan, Webster, & Mahaffey, 2011; Sadalla, Kenrick, & Vershure, 1987). Although there are judged sports (e.g., figure skating, gymnastics, cheerleading) that emphasize physical attractiveness and do not involve direct competition, these sports apparently only occur in large nation-states and thus will be largely irrelevant for the HRAF probability sample. The third functional hypothesis, that sports function to build skills needed for physically demanding activities, might also seem improbable for explain- ing cross-societal variation female sports. The reason is that this hypothesis was developed by evolutionarily oriented scholars in reference to warfare and cooperatively hunting large game (e.g., Chick et al., 1997; Lombardo, 2012; Sipes, 1973), and females rarely participate in these activities in any society (Adams, 1983; Gat, 2006; Keeley, 1996; Marlowe, 2007; Murdock & Provost, 1973). Nonetheless, if this hypothesis is conceived more broadly, namely that sports foster skills for physically or socially demanding activities, then it becomes quite plausible (see Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). In fact, in large soci- eties with organized sports, both historical and contemporary, there have been countless claims that sports promote physical and social development, includ- ing “building character” (e.g., Guttmann, 2004; Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, 2003). Although it has proven difficult to establish causal relationships, many studies document that sports participation correlates with a variety of positive outcomes outside of the sporting arena, and this holds for both males and females (Eccles et al., 2003; Rees & Sabia, 2010; Stevenson, 2010). This “sports as training” hypothesis generates the prediction that female sports participation should be relatively greater in nonpatriarchal than in patriarchal societies. The logic for this prediction is that patriarchal societies can be generally considered low in female power, which can be defined as the capacity for women to control resources and exert political influence (Low, 1992; Yanca & Low, 2004). We will define patriarchal societies as those char- acterized by both patrilocality and patrilineality (Yanca & Low, 2004; see also Hrdy, 1999; Low, 1992; Smuts, 1995). Methods We used the electronic HRAF materials (eHRAF: http://ehrafworldcultures. yale.edu) and focused on the probability sample of 60 societies. The probability at GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIV LIB on July 24, 2013ccr.sagepub.comDownloaded from http://ccr.sagepub.com/ Deaner and Smith 7 sample is a cross-cultural sample designed to ensure representative coverage of traditional and peasant cultures of the world. Its developers randomly selected one well-described culture from each of 60 world regions (Lagacé, 1979; Naroll, 1967). We searched with three Outline of Cultural Materials (OCM) codes: 524-games, 525-gambling, and 526-athletic sports. For each society, we included information from all time periods and resources in HRAF. We did this to maximize the number of potentially coded activities and because it was often unclear from what time period the patriarchy information was derived from. Including information from all time periods means that some coded activities might seem unusual for a particular society (e.g., baseball in Copper Inuit). We obtained data on descent (patrilineality) and residence (patrilocality) from Levinson and Wagner (1986). We classified a society as patriarchal if it was coded as both patrilineal and patrilocal; any other combination (e.g., matrilineal, neolocal; bilateral, patrilocal) was classified as nonpatriarchal. Activity Coding We followed Roberts and colleagues (1959; see also Chick, 1984, 1998) in defining games and kinds of games. A game was defined as an organized activity where two or more sides compete to win according to agreed-upon rules. A game of chance was defined as one whose outcome depends entirely on nonrational guesses or the operation of a mechanical device, such as a die or a spinning top. A game of strategy was defined as one that depends on players’ moves (choices among alternatives), although it may also involve chance; examples include chess and poker. A sport was defined as a game that depends on physical skill, although it may also involve chance or strat- egy. We counted guessing games (“hide the moccasin”) as games of chance, despite that they may involve bluffing or assessing body language. For the sake of comparison, we also coded the occurrence of three activities that bear similarities to games. These were sham combats, duels, and amuse- ments. Following Chick and Loy (2001), we defined a sham combat as a com- bat-like activity that does not meet the definition of a game because there are no criteria for determining a winner. We defined a duel as a formalized com- petition between two individuals that is undertaken to formally determine sta- tus or honor and purposely features the potential for lethal violence. Because we only documented four cases of sham combats and one duel (all with only male participants; see Appendix), we did not analyze them here. We defined amusements as recreational or play activities that do not meet the above definition of a game. Examples include hide and seek, playing house, tag, sledding, and jumping rope (see Roberts et al., 1959; at GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIV LIB on July 24, 2013ccr.sagepub.comDownloaded from http://ccr.sagepub.com/ 8 Cross-Cultural Research XX(X) Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). Amusements potentially could be defined very broadly and thus might entail nearly boundless coding effort. Therefore, we focused on children’s amusements involving physical activity. For example, we did not code (noncompetitive) adult dances, courtship rituals, or verbal games. In some cases, two or more described activities were highly similar or even were explicitly described as being variations of the same game or activity. In such cases, we considered these activities to be one activity. We generally only coded activities that were described with sufficient detail to be confidently classified as an amusement, sham combat, duel, game of skill, game of luck, or a sport. However, when an ethnographer labeled (but did not describe in detail) an activity as being identical to one that occurs in large nation-states, we considered the label to be sufficient for classifica- tion. Examples included “hide and seek,” chess, and ice hockey. We only coded activities where the ethnographer had indicated they had observed an activity that was common in the community. The participants’ sex in some coded activities could not be determined; although this information was retained, these activities were not analyzed in this study and are not included in the Appendix. Sport Coding Among sports, we made several classifications. First, we classified each sport as a combat sport, a hunting sport, or “other” (see Chick & Loy, 2001; Chick et al., 1997; Sipes, 1973). A combat sport was defined here as one emphasizing actions that would occur during actual combat for the purpose of subjugating an opponent and/or inflicting substantial physical harm. The most frequently occurring combat sports were wrestling (24 occurrences), boxing (7), and stick fighting (4; see Appendix). Sports such as arm wres- tling and tug of war were not classified as combat sports because their actions are not generally employed in combat. A hunting sport was defined as one involving actions and equipment that would occur during hunting (or possibly combat) in that society. The most popular one was archery (19) with nearly all the others involving throwing darts, stones, sticks, or spears. In all cases, the target could not be another person; if it was, the sport was considered a combat sport. Actions involving equipment substantially different than that which would be used in hunting were not considered hunting sports. For example, the sport played in many contemporary societies, often in pubs, where small darts are thrown at a hanging target would not be considered a hunting sport. at GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIV LIB on July 24, 2013ccr.sagepub.comDownloaded from http://ccr.sagepub.com/ Deaner and Smith 9 “Other” sports included a broad range of activities; the most frequently occurring were foot race (10) football/soccer (8), tug of war (7), baseball (6), boat race (6), hockey (6), marbles (6), darts (5), and shinny (5). Although some of these sports undoubtedly require skills that would be relevant for combat or hunting (see Sipes, 1973), they were not classified as combat or hunting unless they met the definitions above. We also classified sports according to whether they included physical con- tact. In contact sports, individuals make direct bodily contact with an oppo- nent (e.g., American football, rugby, arm wrestling, tug of war, hair-pulling contest) or else make contact with an opponent’s body with a projectile (e.g., rock throwing) or implement (e.g., stick fighting). All combat sports were classified as including physical contact. Sports where participants make con- tact with a common object but do not regularly direct it towards an oppo- nent’s body (e.g., tennis) were not considered contact sports. Among sports with physical contact, we further classified them as requiring contact, fre- quently involving contact, or rarely involving contact. Examples of sports requiring contact are noted earlier in this paragraph. Examples of sports fre- quently involving contact were football (or soccer), basketball, lacrosse, and hockey. An example of a sport rarely involving contact is baseball (or soft- ball); pitchers may target hitters or runners may deliberately collide with fielders, but these events are rare. We also classified sports and games according to whether they were individ- ual or team sports. Team sports required that two or more individuals compete against one or more opposing teams. In some societies, the same general sport activity is described as occurring among individuals and teams. In these cases, we classified it as both an individual sport and a team sport. All sports could be clas- sified as team, individual, or both, save canoe racing in the Andaman. We initially sought to code activities according to whether they were done by children, adolescents, adults, or by more than one age group. However, we found that there was often insufficient information to make such a determina- tion. Thus, the analyses below pool individuals of all ages. Variation Across Societies To assess variation in sex differences in sports across societies, we calculated what we call the ratio of female to male sports (hereafter F:M sports), which is defined as the number of female sports (female-only sports plus sports played by both males and females) divided by the number of male sports (male-only sports plus ones played by both males and females). The F:M sports could be calculated for 50 societies and varied from 0 to 0.57. at GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIV LIB on July 24, 2013ccr.sagepub.comDownloaded from http://ccr.sagepub.com/ 10 Cross-Cultural Research XX(X) Reliability Initial coding was done independently by the two authors. Agreement was modest for identification of candidate activities of all kinds (i.e., amuse- ments, sham combats, duels, games of chance, games of strategy, sports): ROD coded 473 activities, BAS coded 458, and 334 were common to both; nearly all of the common ones were included in the final list of 509 activities (see Appendix). Most disagreements involved, in descending order, the iden- tification of amusements, distinguishing amusements from … Report (//globalwebindex.com/reports) Download now (https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.gwi.com/reports/womens-sport) (https://twitter.com/share?url=https://www.gwi.com/reports/womens-sport) (http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle? mini=true&url=https://www.gwi.com/reports/womens-sport) Across the world, the sports scene and its many tribes are changing in step with wider trends. This is particularly true for women’s sports, and female sports fans - which are both surging. Yet the commercialization of women’s sports has not been fully realised. With nearly a quarter of women saying they like to watch sport, what are the opportunities for brands to make a lasting impact? In this report find out more about the most popular women's sports, consumption habits, and how media coverage of women in sport is changing. The popularity of women's sports Sign in (https://www.gwi.com/cs/c/?cta_guid=b4001e8d-67ce-45b0-b48a-0a18ee578d Free demo (https://www.gwi.com/cs/c/?cta_guid=ecb1537f-ce3b-401a-8a43-fc242 https://globalwebindex.com/reports https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.gwi.com/reports/womens-sport https://twitter.com/share?url=https://www.gwi.com/reports/womens-sport http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https://www.gwi.com/reports/womens-sport https://www.gwi.com/ https://www.gwi.com/cs/c/?cta_guid=b4001e8d-67ce-45b0-b48a-0a18ee578de6&signature=AAH58kFMYxpG5iow1Vqy8Dpo0C4I20YaVA&pageId=37387664198&placement_guid=b8afc117-a4da-4345-8a30-18fcf6d1b8f7&click=9ddbd2e6-214e-4ef8-a275-c3048a66c465&hsutk=0467387f25a406120ce4a726faee6ae9&canon=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwi.com%2Freports%2Fwomens-sport&utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fbrightspace.nyu.edu%2F&portal_id=304927&redirect_url=APefjpHf8Pd0mMxAw5ZAbT5xDEgFUEehU9DpUnrV-lluThZ4kP92-tG0G9ZDjjY5vaNji_rcLDyvC1LCOzSt2KeqJql7BBcbLdqvs62peDL7hZR0x8EBhAKfL6cR-qy00k12tCEbBaWU&__hstc=93079362.0467387f25a406120ce4a726faee6ae9.1633267688913.1633267688913.1633267688913.1&__hssc=93079362.1.1633267688914&__hsfp=2053694894&contentType=landing-page https://www.gwi.com/cs/c/?cta_guid=ecb1537f-ce3b-401a-8a43-fc242abe49ee&signature=AAH58kFzsgt5MKqo1ltvsQSMUtDxCtxCIg&pageId=37387664198&placement_guid=1a9026f7-3dff-4dd4-beb1-7878c83207b2&click=8ccf4de7-f6b4-4ef7-8463-094cfb14373e&hsutk=0467387f25a406120ce4a726faee6ae9&canon=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwi.com%2Freports%2Fwomens-sport&utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fbrightspace.nyu.edu%2F&portal_id=304927&redirect_url=APefjpGEGnnP0uuRZw2g70Lw02o4evbhycjNw1CyCveO3PIZ8WWQnJr4E2wDy4ENWi4JKpFYolXd6xZAYX6cBjq4J0XXSB9bbagOWXO580feYyrdGGeCRi-iMkuis_bu6Q4dWHP1V0P-&__hstc=93079362.0467387f25a406120ce4a726faee6ae9.1633267688913.1633267688913.1633267688913.1&__hssc=93079362.1.1633267688914&__hsfp=2053694894&contentType=landing-page https://www.gwi.com/cs/c/?cta_guid=b4001e8d-67ce-45b0-b48a-0a18ee578de6&signature=AAH58kFMYxpG5iow1Vqy8Dpo0C4I20YaVA&pageId=37387664198&placement_guid=b8afc117-a4da-4345-8a30-18fcf6d1b8f7&click=9ddbd2e6-214e-4ef8-a275-c3048a66c465&hsutk=0467387f25a406120ce4a726faee6ae9&canon=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwi.com%2Freports%2Fwomens-sport&utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fbrightspace.nyu.edu%2F&portal_id=304927&redirect_url=APefjpHf8Pd0mMxAw5ZAbT5xDEgFUEehU9DpUnrV-lluThZ4kP92-tG0G9ZDjjY5vaNji_rcLDyvC1LCOzSt2KeqJql7BBcbLdqvs62peDL7hZR0x8EBhAKfL6cR-qy00k12tCEbBaWU&__hstc=93079362.0467387f25a406120ce4a726faee6ae9.1633267688913.1633267688913.1633267688913.1&__hssc=93079362.1.1633267688914&__hsfp=2053694894&contentType=landing-page Download now When it comes to gender equality, is women's sports coverage comparable? For sporting events and sports news, are women catered to as a consumer of sports media? With the rise of women's team sports such as women's basketball, women's soccer teams and women's hockey is the media landscape accommodating and adjusting to this change in viewer habits? We look at recent trends in women's sports - tracking how the cultural and consumer landscape is shifting. What's inside the report? This report on women's sports dives into female viewership, profiling a diverse range of fans and pinpointing key insights. Download it now to uncover: As sports viewing moves online what role does televised sport play for female fans? What are their key attitudinal characteristics, and preferred brands? How do sports preferences differ amongst age groups, and across global regions? Which are the surprise hits of online sports that could present opportunities? Learn about the most watched women's sports and the most popular women's sports, in our global trend report. 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But many sports are closing the fan gender gap, some by more than 40% since 2017. This Sunday marks International Women’s Day, and an opportunity to reflect on and celebrate the massive strides over recent years towards parity for women in the world of professional sports. While we have seen significant progress in terms of increased female representation on the field and across sports media, increasing (though not consistently equal) pay and prize money, greater sponsor engagement, and sporting feats of individual brilliance by female athletes, the reality is that many sports still attract a predominantly male fan base. in Sport (http://thegembagroup.com/gemba-news/?cat=sport)  March 6, 2020 http://thegembagroup.com/gemba-news/?cat=sport http://thegembagroup.com/ Has the recent increased focus and exposure for women’s sport helped reduce the gender imbalance among sports fans? Are we closing the sports fan gender gap? There are many positive signs that sports around the world are working to be more accessible and appealing to a wider, more diverse audience. Many sports see this as critical to their long- term sustainability – sports can’t expect to focus on a traditional “pale, male and stale” fan base and hope to grow sustainable revenues, attract new fans, and continue to build participant pathways. From shorter formats (e.g. T20 cricket), more entertainment around a sporting event (e.g. Formula 1 Grand Prix, Australian Open tennis), and marketing campaigns that speak to different and diverse fan segments, the sports fan experience has become increasingly accepting (and acceptable) for all fans. But which sports are most balanced in terms of gender among passionate fans? Which have the biggest fan gender gap? And which sports and regions around the world are moving the needle the most to close the gap? APPROACHING PARITY If success on gender parity in sports fandom is that the population of sports fans reflects the gender split in the overall population, we should be aspiring to a roughly 50:50 split (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population#Global_demographics) of males and females among passionate sports fans. In 2020, according to Gemba Insights global sports fan research, across a basket of 13 of the world’s most popular sports, women make up 47% of highly engaged, passionate sports fans. This is up from 45% three years ago, so the fan gender gap is closing. However, these figures mask some larger gender gaps in specific sports and regions. A relatively high proportion of female fans in Swimming, Tennis and Volleyball (especially in China) skew the data closer to parity. Globally, football (soccer) has only 42% of its fan base being female, almost unchanged since 2017 despite the success of the Women’s World Cup tournament, won by the USA, in 2019. And in key markets around the world, including Australia, the UK, Japan and the US, sports fandom remains largely the preserve of men, although the fan gender gap has closed by as much as 40% in some sports over the past three years. A NATIONAL SPORT LENS https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population#Global_demographics http://thegembagroup.com/ We might expect that the biggest sports in each country could be the ones that appeal most to female fans; they have more existing fans, more people talk about them and it’s almost impossible to miss them in the media – hence we’d expect the major national sports to be at the vanguard of closing the fan gender gap. In the US, the fan base of American Football (gridiron) is strongly male dominated, with almost two-thirds of fans being male. Notably, this has not changed since 2017 – the NFL is not closing its fan gender gap. Yet Basketball, starting from the same level as American Football in 2017, closed the fan gender gap in 2020 from 11 percentage points to just 7 points – a 36% reduction in the gender gap to parity in just over three years. It is no coincidence that Basketball has seen continued growth in both cultural relevance and commercial outcomes during this time (a key commercial lesson to all rights-holders – expand your appeal). Cricket is a major sport in Australia, India and the UK. As a sport, Cricket has closed the fan gender gap in Australia by 21% since 2017 (from women making up 31% of fans, to 35% in 2020), and by 27% in the UK (from a low base of 28% up to 34% of fans being female). The strength of the local women’s leagues (WBBL, for instance) has contributed greatly to the increasing interest in the sport amongst women. In India, where Cricket is akin to a religion, the gender gap is much smaller – 47% of Cricket fans there are female. http://thegembagroup.com/ Football is perhaps the sport with the most compelling global story to tell around female engagement over the past few years, with a highly successful World Cup, positive publicity and strengthening women’s leagues around the world. This has led a narrowing of the gender gap in Brazil, the US and the UK. http://thegembagroup.com/ SPORTS BUILDING PASSION AMONGST FEMALES We’ve observed a number of other patterns emerging from the data. Gemba’s global research in 2017 covered 10 countries (Australia, UK, US, Brazil, China, Italy, Spain, Germany, India and Japan) – though the study has now expanded to 20.  When we looked at each country, we largely saw what one might expect given the frequent gender bias reported in sport. While there was an overall male skew, we saw certain sports presenting a larger gender imbalance. American Football, Boxing and Rugby Union present higher skewed fan profiles toward males, while others such as Tennis, Volleyball and Swimming demonstrated a more balanced profile. And in the three intervening years we can demonstrate some positive shifts in this pattern. In the 13 sports shown in the chart below, the average proportion of female sports fans increased by 3 percentage points closer to parity, and has increased for all sports apart from Swimming and Tennis (two sports that already had an equitable fan gender balance).  Rugby Union, Rugby League, American Football and Boxing – largely archetypal male supported sports – all experienced a balance shift in favour of females and closer to parity (though their fan bases remain predominantly male). http://thegembagroup.com/ CHANGES BY MARKET What about the fan gender gap at the country level? In 2017 all countries we analysed apart from China and India had large fan gender skews towards males. The biggest gender gaps were in Australia, the UK, the US and Japan. When we look at the same countries in 2020, most countries have attracted a larger proportion of females into their fan base. Impressive gains were noted in the UK, the US, Italy (all +5 percentage points closer to parity) and Germany (+6 points closer to parity). In Germany there is an increasing push to include women in sport – and a recognition of previous under- acknowledgement of past achievements.  It now honours the country’s best female footballers in a Hall of Fame, and 2020 marks 50 years since a ban on women’s football was overturned in Germany. The overall shifts noted means that women are increasingly more engaged in sport and express a growing passion toward it. http://thegembagroup.com/ A GENERATIONAL SHIFT The shift in fan balance is a positive outcome for all the hard work currently being undertaken by the emerging sports stars and administrators alike.  Not all women’s sports are achieving the attention of Football or Cricket, yet the perseverance to grow the game needs to be acknowledged. There are a range of reasons why a person becomes involved in a sport – sometimes it is a parent taking a child to a game; sometimes it’s kids talking about the sport in the playground or simply being unavoidably exposed to it if it’s a national pastime. But there is one sure way to grow passion for a sport and that is to be able to see yourself in the faces on the sporting field. The last three years has experienced unprecedented growth in female sport, with more leagues and greater exposure and airtime – and we’ve seen the emerging passion of female fans as they can increasingly see female athletes on the playing field. Those sports that embrace the growth in women’s participation and fandom will continue to build a new, more diverse generation of fans that will sustain the sport for years to come. Find out more about Gemba’s global sports and entertainment research at www.thegembagroup.com/insights (http://www.thegembagroup.com/insights) http://www.thegembagroup.com/insights http://thegembagroup.com/   Research parameters: Fandom defined as 4 or 5 on a 5-point self-rated passion scale for the given sport Age 16+ Sample size n=1,000 per country per year Surveys conducted in each market October/November 2017 and January 2020 SHARE THIS POST     POST YOU MAY LIKE (http://thegembagroup.com/news/toyota-and-gemba-make-the-premiership-cup-tour-gooder/) September 23, 2021 TOYOTA AND GEMBA MAKE THE PREMIERSHIP CUP TOUR javascript:fbShare('http://thegembagroup.com/news/closing-the-sports-fan-gender-gap/', 520, 350) javascript:twitterShare('http://thegembagroup.com/news/closing-the-sports-fan-gender-gap/', 520, 350) javascript:linkedinShare('http://thegembagroup.com/news/closing-the-sports-fan-gender-gap/', 520, 350) javascript:googleShare('http://thegembagroup.com/news/closing-the-sports-fan-gender-gap/', 520, 350) http://thegembagroup.com/news/toyota-and-gemba-make-the-premiership-cup-tour-gooder/ http://thegembagroup.com/ GOODER! 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CONNECT WITH US. http://thegembagroup.com/news/research-report-vaccine-hesitancy-and-the-role-sport-can-play/ mailto:[email protected] http://thegembagroup.com/careers http://thegembagroup.com/ Enter your email address here. SUBSCRIBE  (https://twitter.com/thegembagroup)  (https://au.linkedin.com/compa Subscribe today and be the first to know about new open job positions & receive news about our latest work.  Melbourne 2 Southbank Boulevard Southbank VIC 3006  Contact this branch (mailto:[email protected])  Sydney Level 3, 4-14 Foster Street Surry Hills NSW 2010 +61 2 9125 6500  Contact this branch (mailto:[email protected])  London 2 Eastbourne Terrace, London, W2 6LG  Contact this branch (mailto:[email protected]) https://twitter.com/thegembagroup https://au.linkedin.com/company/gemba mailto:[email protected] mailto:[email protected] mailto:[email protected] http://thegembagroup.com/  Back to top (http://thegembagroup.com/) © 2021 Gemba Pty Ltd. All Rights Reserved.  Shanghai Level 3, Oasis, Xintiandi 58 Taicang Road Shanghai 200021 China +86 21 6103 6747  Contact this branch (mailto:[email protected]) http://thegembagroup.com/ mailto:[email protected] http://thegembagroup.com/ A Dr. Bri Newland and Dr. Ted Hayduk FEMALE SPORT FANDOM Insights from the growing female market Contents i | Executive Summary 1 | What We Know 2 | Female Fandom Matters 3 | We Need To Know Them 4 | The Players 6 | The Findings 9 | The Insights 10 | Broader Insights 12 | The Wrap Up 13 | References 14 | Appendices 20 | Acknowledgments i Understanding female sport fandom is not only important to teams who want to increase attendance and merchandise sales, but also to brands and sponsors interested in connecting with this demographic. In the most lucrative North American professional leagues (NHL, NASCAR, MLS, NBA, MLB, and the NFL) females account for between 37% and 45% of the total market.5 Furthermore, women purchase 46% of official NFL merchandise, spend 80% of all sports apparel dollars, and control 60% of all money spent on men’s clothing.7 Clearly, being a ‘sport fan’ is no longer exclusive to men. However, sport organizations still struggle to effectively manage the female fan experience and cater to their specific behaviors, attitudes, and motivations. The purpose of this white paper is to help practitioners in the sport industry enhance their understanding of this consumer segment. To do so, we gathered and analyzed a dataset of 1796 female sport fans from all geographies, age groups, socio-economic backgrounds, and households. They are fans of a wide range of professional sports – including stalwarts like the NFL, NBA, and MLB, and niche sport organizations like MLS, eSports, and stock car racing. This group likely represents the most diverse and representative sample of female fans gathered. Highlights from the data analysis and the relevant implications for sport practitioners include: • The following subgroups of females reported more frequent consumption behaviors, more fervent attitudes about sport consumption, and stronger motivations for consuming sport. eXeCUtIVe sUMMARY - Young women and girls - Women living in urban communities - Minorities (Black, Hispanic, Asian, Native American, or Other) - Working females (employed full time, part time, or self-employed) - Single females • The number of children in the household had little to no bearing on female fans’ consumption behaviors, attitudes towards sport consumption, or motivations for consuming live sport. This means that fan traits like passion for their favorite team and intent to buy tickets did not dissipate with children and family obligations • The consumption behaviors most reliably predicted commonly referenced digital and mobile technology. These behaviors included consuming online content, learning about, engaging with, and finding content about their favorite teams, listening to podcasts, and streaming live games. • Women commonly reported that their sport consumption behaviors were ‘dependent upon’ technology and that technology was essential to their sport fandom. They also reported engaging with brands via a wide range of social media platforms. 1 Despite the ubiquity of sport fandom in the United States, there are far too many assumptions about and limited research conducted on female fandom.1 Understanding female fandom is not only important to teams who want to increase attendance and merchandise sales, but also to brands and sponsors interested in connecting with this demographic. According to Repucon2, 46% of women are ‘interested’ or ‘very interested’ in sport, with 41% interested in watching live sport events and 39% interested in watching sport on TV. Being a sport fan is no longer exclusive to men. With the passing of Title IX, a law that prevented sex discrimination in schools, girls, and women were afforded vastly expanded opportunities to participate in sport.3 Assumption: Women only go to sport events to be with their husbands or boyf riends Assumption: Women are only superficial fans; they don’t know the technical part of the game Assumption: Women only watch sports to socialize. WHAt We KnoW Unfortunately, while participation in sport grew, females as major athletes, employees, fans, and sport consumers have often not been taken seriously.1 FeMALe FAnDoM MAtteRs Female fandom is growing, but their needs are not being met as sport consumers, which results in sport organizations and brands missing critical revenue streams.4 Females make up a significant percentage of the sport consumer market – ranging from 37% to 45% for the NHL, NASCAR, MLS, NBA, MLB, and the NFL.5 However, sport organizations fail to counteract the narrative that women are only at games to spend time with friends, to appease for women, ignores the myriad interests, needs, and wants of the female sport fan.8,9 While some teams are moving away from everything pink, many of the women’s jerseys are highly sexualized or cut for thinner, more petite women. Women who don’t prefer this sizing have limited options. Much of the decisions tied to consumer products are tied to gender schema theory, where there is a husbands or boyfriends, or to take their children – mainly boys.6 Sport organizations should also care about women because of their purchasing power in the household. Women purchase 46% of official NFL merchandise and spend 80% of all sports apparel dollars.7 Further, women control 60% of all money spent on men’s clothing.7 Therefore, marketers who take the time to learn about female consumers will likely be able to engage fans beyond gimmicks like pink jerseys, tiaras, and boas. The ‘shrink it and pink it’ mentality, where men’s products are reduced in size and changed in color tendency to classify everything as male or female.10 So, assumptions are made about products for women based on gender stereotypes rather than asking what they want.4 While there have been efforts made to broaden the merchandise offerings for women, there is still much that needs to be done in relation to the female fan experience.4 When the imagery in venues and ads are of highly sexualized cheerleaders or ‘hot fans’, clearly the intended audience is for males, not females. Teams need to consider what female fans want in their fan experience.2, 11 3 We neeD to KnoW tHeM As women gain more control over their activities, including sport, gender is less likely to influence consumption of sport.12 Therefore, marketers must move past assumptions and stereotypes about the female fan. Sexism and stereotypical role expectations of women are omnipresent in sport. Academic studies as well as posts on mainstream social media suggest that women are viewed as inauthentic fans who are less knowledgeable and only follow sport for their partners or social interaction (see figure).2, 11 Therefore, its essential to understand the interests and behaviors that identify female fandom; and to realize that it will not look like the traditional male fan behavior.4 The purpose of this study was to chart the trends that characterize female sport fans’ consumption behaviors, at titude s, and moti vations. 4 tHe PLAYeRs This section contains an overview of the female fan characteristics and the insights. In an effort to streamline the information and ensure that relevant details are communicated effectively, the more technical aspects of the analyses and findings are included as footnotes. Of the 1,796 total female participants in the study, 76.2% were white, 8.7% were black, 6.7% were Hispanic, 4.4% were Asian, 2.2% were Native American, 1.1% were ‘other’, and 0.8% preferred not to answer. Over 45% were married, 37.7% were unmarried (single, divorced, widowed), and 17% were underage or did not respond. T h e f i g u r e s b e l o w i l l u s t r a t e t h e o t h e r demographic details of the female sample. 76.2% white 45.2% married 18.5% kids in house hold 41.9% income over $50k 5 The first goal of our analysis of female fans was to build a general modeli that sought to predict a series of behaviors, attitudes, and motivations most commonly associated with sport fandom. In this stage, we used eight demographic variables to predict 40 individual We wanted answers to t wo key que stions: 1. Which ch arac te r is t ics could predict female fans’ consumption behaviors? 2. Which c ate gor ie s of female fans’ behaviors can be predicted? behaviors and 15 attitudes toward sport consumption, and 12 motives for consuming live sports. The second goal of this analysis was to develop a deeper understandingii of the trends highlighted in the first portion of the analysis by exploring how groups and subgroups of females differed in fan behaviors, attitudes, and motivations. i Fifteen attitudes, 12 motivations, and 13 behaviors produced cross sectional data that were examined using OLS linear regression with fixed effects for community type, ethnicity, employment status, marital status, annual income, and geography – region. Number of children in the household and age were treated as continuous variables. Another 28 behaviors were analyzed as dichotomous outcomes, phrased in such a way as to allow us to model the likelihood that a female fan would engage in the consumption behavior at least once per week. These 28 behaviors were modeled using a logistic model specification. iiThis stage of the analysis involved using a series of ANOVAS and post-hoc tests to isolate group differences. 6 FInDInGs 7 There were a handful of insights that broadly inform this study’s main research questions. Table 1 depicts the 40 outcomes related to sport consumption behaviors. Each column represents a predictor variable included in the model. Purple blocks connote that the predictor was useful,iii while the white boxes Table 1. Predictive Sport Consumption Behaviors iii Statistically signficant at the .05 level or better Strong Predictor Weak Predictor A cc ur at el y P re di ct ed Le ss A cc ur at el y P re di ct ed indicate no bearing on the outcome. To clarify the interpretation of the tables, the eight demographic predictors are arranged from left to right in order of most to least predictive. Additionally, the outcomes for each category are arranged from top to bottom in order of most accurately to least accurately predicted. 8 Table 2 depicts the 15 outcomes related to sport consumption attitudes. As with Table 1, each column represents a predictor variable included in the model - purple indicating a useful predictor. Table 2. Predictive Sport Consumption Attitudes Finally, Table 3 depicts the 12 outcomes related to sport consumption motives.V iv Statistically significant at the .05 level or better v Statistically significant at the .05 level or better Table 3. Predictive Motives for Live Sport Consumption Strong Predictor Weak Predictor Strong Predictor Weak Predictor Le ss A cc ur at el y P re di ct ed A cc ur at el y P re di ct ed Le ss A cc ur at el y P re di ct ed A cc ur at el y P re di ct ed 9 InsIGHts Younger female fans reported stronger fan behavior and positi ve at titude s than older fans Younger female fans displayed stronger moti ve s for li ve sport than older fans Urban female fans use technology to consume sport more than those outside of citie s Minorit y female fans believe li ve sport is more authentic to watch than white fans Minorit y female fans use more technology to consume sport than white fans 10 Several broad themes appear from the model. 1 Female fans’ age was the strongest predictor with younger females most associated with stronger and more frequent fan behaviors, more positive attitudes, and stronger motivations for consuming live sports. For example, younger female fans are more likely to consume general online content, stream games, use technology sources to learn about their team, and follow their favorite team on social media. 2 Community type - whether the participant lives in an urban, suburban, or rural community - was the next strongest predictor. Urban fans were more likely to attend ancillary events and watch on demand programming about their favorite team and were more technology dependent. Urban fans also were highly motivated by live sport programming. BRoADeR InsIGHts Minorit y fans cle arly stand out in the data - e specially related to moti ve s to watch sport li ve 3 Female fans’ race predicted female fans’ motivations especially, in addition to quite a few behaviors and attitudes. For the ethnicity variable, respondents indicated whether they were white, black, Latino, Asian, Native American, or other. Minority fans were highly motivated by live sport content than white fans. In particular, watching live made the fan experience more memorable, helped them to feel part of a greater community, and was the most thrilling way to consume sport. 11 4 For working status, follow up analyses found that working females (employed full-time, self-employed, and employed part-time) engaged in more frequent consumption behaviors, significantly more favorable attitudes, and significantly stronger motivations for consuming sport than did non-working females (students, unemployed, and retired). Working female fans consume online content, watch sport li ve, and buy merchandise more than non-working fans 5 The number of children present in the female fans’ households is an important predictor. This is important for female fandom because children can have two differing effects on consumption kids can cause: (a) time and attention tradeoffs that reduce consumption, or (b) opportunities for the transference of fandom (parent to child) that can increase fandom. Surprisingly, the number of children in the household had little to no bearing on female fans’ consumption behaviors, attitudes towards sport consumption, or motivations for consuming sport. Female fans with children reported the same levels of passion and fan identit y as those without children Female fans with children reported higher levels of sport consumption addiction than those without children. 12 Women, and sometimes especially girls, tend to be discounted as a target market by sport practitioners based on traditional gender norms and expectations.10 Sport consumption can be ‘branded’ using traditionally masculine qualities in the news media and popular press, but the rapid dilution of traditional gender norms has motivated a new crop of young sport consumers, many of whom are female. 2, 4, 9 Thus, sport practitioners would do well to prioritize this market opportunity to a greater extent than they have to date. Women and girls can be incorporated into organizations’ Women watch sport li ve because: • it builds a sense of communit y • it’s an authentic way to watch • it’s the most thrilling way to consume it • it provide s re al drama in their li ve s • they can witne ss histor y target audience using updated marketing frameworks that de-gender sport consumption, or especially by creating brand and marketing materials that speak directly to this segment, their interests, and their motivations. The urban setting was highly predictive, especially of technology consumptive behaviors. Given the closer proximity to teams in the urban setting, it is unsurprising that female fans in these areas would express more sport consumption behavior. However, region (west, midwest, south, and mideast) was not at all predictive. Meaning female fans tend to manifest these behaviors Antiquated notions of gender stereotypes around females in sport have long dominated the thinking about what it means to be a female in sport.1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10,11,12 Practitioners in sport organizations can leverage these insights by creating opportunities for females to engage in the ways that they prefer. Moving beyond stereotypes, providing a fan experience that is catered to them specifically, and listening can enhance the relationship sport organizations have with a major household decision-maker and spender. Doing so can enhance revenue streams, cultivate stronger relationships with build a fanbase that is truly there for their own leisure experience. tHe WRAP UP 13 1. Pope, S. (2017). The feminization of sports fandom: A sociological study. New York, NY: Routledge. 2. Author Unknown (2017). Women and Sport: Insights into the growing rise and importance of female fans and damela athletes. Repucom. Retrieved February 2020 from http:// nielsensports.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Women-and-Sport-Repucom.pdf. 3. Staurowsky, E. J. (2019). The impact of Title IX and other equity laws on the business of women’s sport. In (Eds.) Lough, N., & Geurin, A. N. Routledge Handbook of the Business of Women’s Sport. New York, NY: Routledge. 4. Harrolle, M. & Kicklighter, K. (2019). Women are sport fans! An examination of female sport fandom. In (Eds.) Lough, N., & Geurin, A. N. Routledge Handbook of the Business of Women’s Sport. New York, NY: Routledge. 5. Funk, D. C., Alexandris, K., & McDonald, H. (2016). Sport consumer behaviour: In (Eds.) Mothersbaugh, D. & Hawkins, D. Consumer behavior: Building Marketing Strategy. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. 6. Lange, J. (2018, September). Women love baseball, why doesn’t baseball love them back? The Week. Retrieved from, https://theweek.com/articles/793920/women-love-baseball-why- doesnt-baseball-love-back. 7. Watson, C. (2015). Fanbase Economics: Engaging female fanbases. Futureof.org. Retrieved February 2020 from http://futureof.org/sports-2015/fanbase-economics/. 8. Brown, B. & Nutler, B. (2019). Authentically communicating with women consumers: examining successful (and non-successful) branding and marketing efforts. In (Eds.) Lough, N., & Geurin, A. N. Routledge Handbook of the Business of Women’s Sport. New York, NY: Routledge. 9. Newland, B. (2019). The delivery and management of women-only sport events and their future sustainability. In (Eds.) Lough, N., & Geurin, A. N. Routledge Handbook of the Business of Women’s Sport. New York, NY: Routledge. 10. Staurowsky, E. J. (2016). Women and sport: From liberation to celebration. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 11. Sveinson, K., & Hoeber, L. (2016). Female sport fans’ experiences of marginalization and empowerment. Journal of Sport Management, 30(1), 8-21. 12. McGinnis, L., Chun, S., & McQuillan, J. (2003). A review of gendered consumption in sport and leisure. Bureau of Sociological Research-Faculty Publications, 2. ReFeRenCes http://nielsensports.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Women-and-Sport-Repucom.pdf http://nielsensports.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Women-and-Sport-Repucom.pdf https://theweek.com/articles/793920/women-love-baseball-why-doesnt-baseball-love-back https://theweek.com/articles/793920/women-love-baseball-why-doesnt-baseball-love-back http://Futureof.org http://futureof.org/sports-2015/fanbase-economics/ 14 APPenDICes This section provides a brief snapshot of the preferences of female sport fans by favorite sport, favorite sport to watch live, interest in sport by favorite athlete or team, and self-reported fan affinity for sport generally and their favorite sport. The key takeaways are as follows: • All generations chose the NFL as their favorite, with strong interest in the NCAA basketball and football, and MLB (for older generations). • All generations enjoy watching NCAA basketball and football as well as motorsport live. Older generations enjoy watching MLB live. • Female Gen Zs and millennials had the largest portion that felt more attached to their favorite athlete than team. However, all four generations follow the team more than the athlete. • When asked to rate their fan affinity, all generations felt they were an average fan, generally. However, Gen Zs rated their general sport fandom as a ‘strong fan’, as well. • When asked the same question about fan affinity about their favorite team, all four generations rated themselves as ‘strong fans’ on average. Very few rated themselves as obsessed or addicted fans, which is consistent with their passion findings - most were found to have harmonious passion over obsessive passion or addiction. 15 GENERATION X FAVORITE SPORT 16 GENERATION X FAVORITE SPORT TO WATCH LIVE 17 GENERATION X FAVORITE ATHLETE OR TEAM 18 GENERATION X GENERAL FAN AFFINITY 19 GENERATION X FAVE SPORT FAN AFFINITY Dr. Bri Newland and Dr. Ted Hayduk Special acknowledgements to Ben Valenta and FOX Sports for sponsoring this research partnership EXECUTIVE SUMMARY WHAT WE KNOW FEMALE FANDOM MATTERS WE NEED TO KNOW THEM THE PLAYERS FINDINGS INSIGHTS BROADER INSIGHTS THE WRAP UP REFERENCES APPENDICES Acknowledgments