Fluent Essays

Summarize the given two topics provided in the pdf file. 1. The Second-system effect 2. Passing the word The Second-System Effect Adde parvum parvo magnus acervus erit. {Add little to little and there will be a Ug pile. ] If one separates responsibility for functional specification from responsibility for building a fast, cheap product, what discipline bounds the architect's inventive enthusiasm? The fundamental answer is thoroughgoing, careful, and sympathetic communication between architect and builder. Nevertheless, there are finer-grained answers that deserve attention. Interactive Discipline for the Architect The architect of a building works against a budget, using estimating techniques that are later confirmed or corrected by the contractors' bids. It often happens that all the bids exceed the budget. The architect then revises his estimating technique upward and his design downward for another iteration. He may perhaps suggest to the contractors’ ways to implement his design more cheaply than they had devised. An analogous process governs the architect of a computer system or a programming system. He has, however, the advantage of getting bids from the contractor at many early points in his design, almost any time he asks for them. He usually has the disadvantage of working with only one contractor, who can raise or lower his estimates to reflect his pleasure with the design. In practice, early and continuous communication can give the architect good cost readings and the builder confidence in the design without blurring the clear division of responsibilities. The architect has two possible answers when confronted with an estimate that is too high: cut the design or challenge the estimate by suggesting cheaper implementations. This latter is inherently an emotion-generating activity. The architect is now challenging the builder's way of doing the builder's job. For it to be successful, the architect must • remember that the builder has the inventive and creative responsibility for the implementation; so, the architect suggests, not dictates; • always be prepared to suggest a way of implementing anything he specifies, and be prepared to accept any other way that meets the objectives as well; • deal quietly and privately in such suggestions; • be ready to forego credit for suggested improvements. Normally the builder will counter by suggesting changes to the architecture. Often, he is right—some minor feature may have unexpectedly large costs when the implementation is worked out. Passing the Word Hell sit here and he'll say, "Do this! Do that!" And nothing will happen. HARRYS. TRUMAN. ON PRESIDENTIAL POWER1 Assuming that he has the disciplined, experienced architects and that there are many implementers, how shall the manager ensure that everyone hears, understands, and implements the architects' decisions? How can a group of 10 architects maintain the conceptual integrity of a system which 1000 men are building? A whole technology for doing this was worked out for the System/360 hardware design effort, and it is equally applicable to software projects. Written Specifications—the Manual The manual, or written specification, is a necessary tool, though not a sufficient one. The manual is the external specification of the product. It describes and prescribes every detail of what the user sees. As such, it is the chief product of the architect. Round and round goes its preparation cycle, as feedback from users and implementers shows where the design is awkward to use or build. For the sake of implementers, it is important that the changes be quantized—that there be dated versions appearing on a schedule. The manual must not only describe everything the user does see, including all interfaces; it must also refrain from describing what the user does not see. That is the implementer's business, and there his design freedom must be unconstrained. The architect must always be prepared to show an implementation for any feature he describes, but he must not attempt to dictate the implementation. The style must be precise, full, and accurately detailed. A user will often refer to a single definition, so each one must repeat all the essentials and yet all must agree. This tends to make manuals dull reading, but precision is more important than liveliness. The unity of System/360's Principles of Operation springs from the fact that only two pens wrote it: Gerry Blaauw's and Andris Padegs'. The ideas are those of about ten men, but the casting of those decisions into prose specifications must be done by only one Formal Definitions 63 or two, if the consistency of prose and product is to be maintained. For the writing of a definition will necessitate a host of minidecisions which are not of full-debate importance. An example in System/360 is the detail of how the Condition Code is set after each operation. Not trivial, however, is the principle that such mini-decisions be made consistently throughout. I think the finest piece of manual writing I have ever seen is Blaauw's Appendix to System/360 Principles of Operation. This describes with care and precision the limits of System/360 compatibility. It defines compatibility, prescribes what is to be achieved, and enumerates those areas of external appearance where the architecture is intentionally silent and where results from one model may differ from those of another, where one copy of a given model may differ from another copy, or where a copy may differ even from itself after an engineering change. This is the level of precision to which manual writers aspire, and they must define what is not prescribed as carefully as what is. Formal Definitions English, or any other human language, is not naturally a precision instrument for such definitions. Therefore, the manual writer must strain himself and his language to achieve the precision needed. An attractive alternative is to use a formal notation for such definitions. After all, precision is the stock in trade, the raison d'etre of formal notations. Let us examine the merits and weaknesses of formal definitions. As noted, formal definitions are precise. They tend to be complete; gaps show more conspicuously, so they are filled sooner. What they lack is comprehensibility. With English prose one can show structural principles, delineate structure in stages or levels, and give examples. One can readily mark exceptions and emphasize contrasts. Most important, one can explain why. The formal definitions put forward so far have inspired wonder at their elegance and confidence in their precision. But they have demanded 64 Passing the Word prose explanations to make their content easy to learn and teach. For these reasons, I think we will see future specifications to consist of both a formal definition and a prose definition.