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Develop Research Questions Instructions Your assignment is to draft two or more research questions. These questions can be either qualitative or quantitative or a mixture of both. Qualitative: Research questions must be aligned with the purpose statement. Qualitative research questions should be open-ended and reflect the nature of the qualitative design (avoid yes/no and closed-ended questions). Quantitative: Research questions must be aligned with the purpose statement and should include proposed hypothesis(es). Ensure the research questions and hypothesis(es) are aligned with the purpose statement. The research questions and hypotheses must be directly answerable, specific, and testable based on the data collected. Hypotheses (Quantitative/Mixed Studies Only) Both null hypotheses and alternative hypotheses should be stated. Each must directly correspond with a research question. Hypotheses must be stated in testable, potentially negatable, form with each variable operationalized. Note: Each hypothesis represents one distinct testable prediction. Upon testing, each hypothesis must be entirely supported or entirely negated. Length: 2 pages, not including title page (reference page not required) Your research questions should be directly aligned with the purpose statement. Your research questions should reflect scholarly writing and current APA standards where appropriate. Developing Questions from Research Problems In: Doing Excellent Small-Scale Research By: Derek Layder Pub. Date: 2014 Access Date: August 25, 2021 Publishing Company: SAGE Publications Ltd City: London Print ISBN: 9781849201834 Online ISBN: 9781473913936 DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781473913936 Print pages: 39-56 © 2013 SAGE Publications Ltd All Rights Reserved. This PDF has been generated from SAGE Research Methods. Please note that the pagination of the online version will vary from the pagination of the print book. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781473913936 Developing Questions from Research Problems Preview This chapter covers the following: • What is problem-driven research? • The difference between problem-questions and topic-questions • Research questions and research design • Key problem questions • Developing and refining research questions • Defining the range of topic-questions • Shaping specific topic-questions • Limiting the number of topic-questions • Deciding on core research questions • Tightening up research questions The adaptive approach taps into the unfolding nature of the research process by flexibly responding to unanticipated data, evidence, concepts and ideas. However, in many other respects it is quite unlike the model of ‘unfolding’ research described by Punch (2008: 22–7). One fundamental difference is that it stresses the need to develop and hone research questions right from the word go – before data collection – in order to inject shape and direction into a project. But another difference is that it centralises the idea of research as problem-driven. Many methods texts stress the importance of research questions (Blaikie 2009; Creswell 2009; Punch 2008) for providing early structure to a project. However, there is no mention of the role of (explanatory) problems in framing the initial design of a project, providing its ongoing practical impetus, and influencing how it unfolds in the longer term. These two characteristics – structured questions in advance of data collection and its problem-driven nature – have a close and very special relationship. Thus the central problem-focus of a research project importantly shapes and influences the research questions that underpin the overall research design. This chapter examines exactly what is involved here, and how it is achieved in the context of particular projects. But other, more basic issues are covered, such as: what is a research problem? How does a problem differ from a topic? What is problem-driven research? What is the role of research questions? How does a problem-focus influence the development and refinement of research questions? Problem-Driven Research SAGE 2013 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. SAGE Research Methods Page 2 of 17 Developing Questions from Research Problems From the adaptive perspective it is important to make a distinction between ‘research problems’ and ‘research topics’. This is because in the methods literature, ‘problems’ and ‘topics’ are frequently regarded as synonymous, and thus the two words are used interchangeably. For example, Blaikie (2009: 46) suggests that ‘research topics can also be stated in the form of a research problem to be investigated’. Many other authors simply omit to talk about research problems altogether. However, in the present context it is of the utmost importance to think of ‘problems’ as quite different from ‘topics’ since the distinction has a general bearing on the unfolding of research projects. Furthermore, the distinction has a particular role to play in the development of research questions. First, let us clear up the issue of what a research problem is. Social Problems A ‘research problem’ must not be confused with what is commonly referred to as a ‘social problem’. A ‘social problem’ indicates a state of affairs that is deemed to be unsatisfactory – say, an increase in knife or gun crime, or in divorce rates – which is thought, by government or policymakers to be in need of rectifying by some legal or policy intervention. Research Problems A ‘research problem’, by contrast, is more analytic and centres on how different dimensions of society (or constituent features of social life) combine and ‘work’ together. These sorts of problems can be said to be explanatory problems because some aspect of the operation and functioning of society is in need of explanation. (They are also sometimes referred to as ‘analytic’ or ‘theoretical’ problems.) Research Topics A research ‘topic’ is much more specific and empirical. It focuses on discrete areas of social activity in society. Topics centre on specific types of activities, such as work, leisure/entertainment, family, intimacy and personal relationships, crime, bureaucracy, and so on. They focus on the nature of the social relationships between those people operating within the sphere of activity in question. Research problems and research topics each provide a focus on different aspects within the same research project. As such, they also raise different kinds of research questions about what is going on in the specific sphere of activity that is the subject of the research. What Is the Difference Between Problem-Questions and Topic- Questions? The following preliminary definitions indicate the differences between these types of question. Topic-questions are specific and descriptive. SAGE 2013 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. SAGE Research Methods Page 3 of 17 Developing Questions from Research Problems Problem-questions are general and explanatory. Let me illustrate these by discussing a specific example of research on universities. What is said here is not limited to the example of universities. Exactly the same could be said of many other examples – schools, hospitals, health clubs, fast-food restaurants, cafés, night clubs, gangs, and so on. With universities, topic-questions would target the issue of the differences between individual universities. Since there are many universities, all of which their own specific characteristics, a factual description of any particular university will enable us to distinguish it from others, say in terms of its physical size and campus layout, the number of students it has, how popular it is, its academic status as compared with others, and so on. Thus topic-questions would focus on the particular descriptive details that emphasise differences between universities. On the other hand, problem-questions would ask ‘why are universities structurally similar to each other?’ Thus an important question for social analysis is ‘what is it about a particular organisation that enables us to identify it as a university in the first place? What general characteristics make a university distinguishable from, say, a fast-food restaurant or a hospital? To answer this we have to move away from individual differences and ask ‘what characteristics do all universities possess? Among other things, we could point to: their educational role in society; the existence of groups of students and teachers (lecturers and professors) and the transmission of knowledge between them; age-graded learning; the capacity to award examination certificates, and so on. Such characteristics serve to categorise particular organisations as universities. Since problem-questions are concerned with the general characteristics shared by all universities, it is not necessary to focus on individual differences. In Summary Topic-questions focus on the variations in social organisation produced by people and their activities, at specific times and places. Topic-questions, therefore, focus on ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘when’ questions and, as a consequence, they are more concrete and empirical in nature. Thus they are: Particular, Concrete and Empirical, Vary in terms of Time, Place, People, Descriptive. By contrast, problem-questions focus on patterns of social organisation and activity that do not vary from time to time, place to place, or people to people. As a consequence, they are more abstract and conceptual in nature. Thus they are: General, Abstract and Conceptual, Independent of Time, Place and People, SAGE 2013 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. SAGE Research Methods Page 4 of 17 Developing Questions from Research Problems Explanatory. Research Questions: Problems, Topics and Research Design More detailed examples of the differences between problem- and topic-questions will appear as the discussion proceeds. Before this, however, let me briefly underline what is involved in problem-driven research by spelling out the links between problems, topics, research questions and research design. The important point is to develop some core research questions which will serve to define the nature, scope and objectives of the research, and thus give it clarity and momentum right from the start. However, I have emphasised that research questions themselves result from the combined influence of a problem-focus and a topic-focus. Thus research questions are a definite mixture of problem- and topic-questions. The importance of research problems, in providing a focus for a project and in influencing research questions, is essential, although frequently neglected. Figure 3.1 summarises the links between the different elements. Figure 3.1 A problem-focus provides the starting point and driving impetus of the project. It ties the research to explanatory objectives and thus moves it beyond an exclusively descriptive account. Of course, good descriptive and informational elements are also essential and targeted by the topic-questions. Thus, research questions result from a combination of problem- and topic-questions. However, ‘problems’ have a dominant role within this ‘mixture’ in so far as they shape and influence topic questions. The result is expressed in the core research questions, and I shall explain how this is achieved further on in the discussion. Once the core research questions have been decided, you are then in a position to take the next step, which is to outline a research design (dealt with more fully in the next chapter). Problems, Topics and Research Questions This section focuses on how problem-questions help to define and refine topic-questions and how they are linked with particular kinds of data or evidence. What exactly should you be looking for? What data or evidence do you need in order to throw light on the issues raised by your research problems and questions? SAGE 2013 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. SAGE Research Methods Page 5 of 17 Developing Questions from Research Problems What sources of evidence are most useful? The discussion proceeds by examining each of the six key problem questions introduced in Chapter 1. As such, each of the questions deals with an important social domain. The format of the discussion is the same for each problem. First, the core problem focus is stated and followed by a short discussion unpacking its implications for research. Then, in order to bring out their differences, several related problem- and topic-questions and themes are identified for comparison. This format gives the reader an impression of the relationship between the two types of question and the skills required in formulating good research questions. Take especial notice of what happens in switching from thinking about problem-questions to topic-questions. There is a shift from the general, abstract level of problem-questions, to the more particular, level of topic- questions. As you try to envision problem-questions in empirical terms, the more you ask ‘what sort of data, information or evidence is relevant to these problems and issues?’ Conversely, to check the relevance of topic-questions against a particular problem-focus, it is necessary to take the opposite journey from the particular to the general, and so on. It is this continual movement back and forth, between the different levels and types of question, which enables the researcher to decide on research questions. Key Problem-Questions 1 Self-Identity and Life Careers (Domain of Psychobiography) The core problem-focus: How are a person's self-identity, feeling, ideas and attitudes related to his or her social environment? The relationship between an individual and society – or between subjective experience and social organisation – is one of reciprocal influence. As ‘individuals’ we are never completely separated from social contact and involvements with other people. We are ‘automatically’ entangled in a fairly complex array of social relationships, ranging from the more ‘durable’ ones with family, friends, colleagues and neighbours to the more ‘transient’, with fellow travellers, strangers, passers-by, ticket sellers, and so on. However, each of us tends to see ourselves – and are seen by others – as a unique individual with a distinctive ‘self’ or ‘personal identity’. Clearly, self-identity is to some degree influenced (formed and shaped) by social involvements and influences, although it isn't completely moulded by them. Individuals always have some freedom from social influences, pressures and constraints and are able to react to and creatively shape their own destinies. Each of us has a unique personal history of social involvements as we pass from childhood to adulthood, while ongoing life experiences endow us with unique personality traits, capacities and behavioural responses. For instance, individuals have different levels of confidence, security and self-esteem which in turn, determine their capacity for love, how they get on with others, and how resentful or content they are with their lot. SAGE 2013 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. SAGE Research Methods Page 6 of 17 Developing Questions from Research Problems http://methods.sagepub.com/book/doing-excellent-small-scale-research/n1.xml Such individual differences are manifested in how sociable we are, how skilled at conversation, our ability to sympathise with others or read their emotions, to deal with the misfortunes or successes that life has to offer, and so on. Each person has a repertoire of feelings and behavioural responses that are specific to them as an individual person. In short, everyone has a psychobiography (or life career) that traces changes and continuities in personal identity as we make our way through life (Layder 1993). Psychobiography maps the interplay between private thoughts and feelings and social experiences and involvements over time. Problem-Questions 1 What is the ‘subjective’ career of the self over time as a person engages in certain social activities and involvements? 2 What feelings, motivations and experiences are associated with particular spheres of activity? 3 To what extent do psychological and social influences shape human behaviour? Topic-Questions 1 What subjective careers are associated with: (a) crime (robbery, violence, shop lifting, fraud, drug dealing, homicide); (b) work; (c) illness; (d) marriage; (e) personal relationships? 2 What motivates people to become involved in drug taking or alcohol or petty theft? Do individuals’ perceptions of the meanings of these activities and meanings change over time? 3 Why do individuals feel entrapped or fulfilled by marriage, partnerships and friendships? 4 Why do individuals resent the authority others hold over them at work? 5 What are a person's ambitions at school, college, work or in personal life? 2 Social Interaction (Encounters) (Domain of Situated Activity) The core problem-focus: How do people influence one another's behaviour in social interaction? We encounter each other in everyday life at school, at work, during leisure or relaxation periods, on the street, on public transport, and so on. Sometimes these encounters are between strangers, at other times with people we know very well. Most encounters are face to face, although in the modern world they are often ‘mediated’ by mobile phones, texts, the internet, and so on. Face-to-face interaction produces emergent characteristics which affect the behaviour of those involved (Goffman 1983). For example, individuals tend to ‘present’ themselves in particular ways so as to impress, persuade, help or manipulate others. Also, those present in encounters create and share ‘local’ meanings. Thus, what is said in an encounter may only be SAGE 2013 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. SAGE Research Methods Page 7 of 17 Developing Questions from Research Problems completely understandable to those present since bystanders or outsiders may not be privy to its special meanings. Finally, there are social rules about the appropriateness of certain kinds of interactive behaviour, such as standing at a certain distance from a speaker, allowing them appropriate conversational turns, and not needlessly embarrassing or unmasking them. Problem-Questions 1 What is the nature of the encounter? Is it transient, as with a stranger on public transport, or is it part of a linked series of encounters over time, as with family members, friends or work colleagues? 2 In what kind of social setting does the encounter occur? How does it affect the encounter? Is it a formal setting, such as at college, school, work, or is it an informal setting, such as between family and friends? 3 What meanings and rules are created and shared by the participants? 4 How are the self-identities of the participants influenced by the dynamics of the encounters? Topic-Questions 1 Do encounters on public transport and in shopping malls differ from those at work, school and university? How do they differ from encounters between friends and family members? 2 Do conversations with friends differ from those between acquaintances? 3 Why are some individuals excluded from encounters, or from their real meanings and business? Are there ‘rules’ of inclusion and exclusion? 4 What is the nature of interaction between customers in shops, restaurants, cafés? Does the size of such establishments make any difference to the quality of the interaction? 5 Is there tension and conflict in encounters between customers and staff in a particular fast-food restaurant or a gym? 6 Does gossip help cement bonds between friends or lovers? 7 How and why do people support others in conversations? How and why do they attempt to undermine others? 3 The Influence of Social Settings (Domain of Social Settings) The core problem-focus: How do social settings (for example, schools, hospitals families or companies) influence behaviour and activity? Social interaction always takes place within specific social settings, but ‘interaction’ and ‘settings’ are very SAGE 2013 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. SAGE Research Methods Page 8 of 17 Developing Questions from Research Problems different kinds of phenomena. Social interaction has a transient, evanescent quality and depends on the comings and goings and matching up of particular people. Social settings have a more durable quality and, over time, give rise to routine patterns of interaction. In this sense they have an already established pattern of social organisation. Some settings are formally organised with positions of power and authority, as in bureaucratic organisations like banks, hospitals, factories, industrial companies even schools and universities. Other types of setting are more loosely and informally organised, such as family or friendship networks, gangs and criminal sub-cultures. Nonetheless, they are socially organised in terms of roles, expectations and values. Problem-Questions 1 How does the type of social setting influence behaviour and social activity? What are the significant differences between formally organised and informal settings? 2 How do established social practices within settings affect behaviour? What roles or social positions are there? How is power and authority organised within the setting? 3 How do people become attached and committed to particular settings? How are social relationships organised within settings? Topic-Questions 1 How is a particular factory, hospital, school, religious sect or fast-food restaurant socially organised? Is there a hierarchy of power, authority and control? How does this organisation affect social behaviour and activity? 2 In what ways are family ties or friendship networks socially organised? What sort of bonds are there in such settings? How do people become committed and attached to them? What are the general rules and expectations of friendship? 3 Are relations between customers and staff in fast-food restaurants fleeting, alienated and artificial? If they are, why is this so? 4 What range of emotional expression is expected of flight attendants, school teachers or social workers in their respective work settings? Do these settings fulfil creative, emotional or spiritual needs? 5 Do families fulfil or thwart emotional needs? 6 Do factors associated with class, ethnicity, gender or age influence the organisation and operation of particular settings? 4 The Wider Social Context (Domain of Contextual Resources) The core problem-focus: How is social behaviour influenced by (a) social class, ethnicity, gender, age, neighbourhood, region or politics and (b) cultural values, expectations and institutions? SAGE 2013 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. SAGE Research Methods Page 9 of 17 Developing Questions from Research Problems Society as a whole stretches beyond the boundaries of particular fields of activity. In a society-wide sense, money, property, possessions, status and power are organised and distributed between social groups in terms of structural factors such as class, ethnicity, gender, age, and so on. The forms of inequality so created profoundly affect people's life experiences and their subjective responses expressed in feelings, attitudes, values and expectations. The central, political and economic institutions of a society also promote values, ideas and ideologies that encourage or discourage certain forms of behaviour. Thus the macro context of society impinges on particular spheres of activity by shaping their social settings and influencing values and attitudes in everyday life. Problem-Questions 1 How do class, gender, age and ethnicity affect intimacy, drug taking, leisure and sport, educational experiences, and so on? 2 In what sense is the political, religious and economic situation relevant to the focus of the research project? How do such factors influence social behaviour? 3 In what ways do values, expectations and ideology encourage or discourage certain forms of behaviour? 4 How do social media shape values and imagery? Topic-Questions 1 Are women (or ethnic minorities) treated differently in the workplace? 2 Why and how do some people suffer harassment or bullying on the street, in clubs or in school? 3 Are some social groups discriminated against in the educational system? What role do financial inequalities play in such cases? 4 How do people deal with fear caused by gang violence or paramilitary violence or terrorism? 5 Power and Social Activity (Dimension of Power) The core problem-focus: How does power influence social activity? Power can be found everywhere in social life, although it takes different forms and affects people's lives and behaviour in different ways. With individual or subjective power a person's physical and psychological attributes enable him or her to wield varying degrees of control and influence over others. Situational dynamics are also important because the power that an individual possesses tends to vary from situation to situation (situational power). A chief executive officer of a multinational company may be powerful in the workplace, but oppressed and put upon in her or his personal life. An ordinary member of the public may SAGE 2013 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. SAGE Research Methods Page 10 of 17 Developing Questions from Research Problems perform an extraordinary act of bravery, and so on. Occupational positions in work settings often have a quota of power and authority so that individuals holding these positions exert control over co-workers (positional power). Finally, there is power deriving from a group's position in the wider (macro) structure of society (structural power). Inequalities of power between various groupings are based on unequal distributions of resources. Problem-Questions 1 What are the main differences between types of power in social life? How do they operate and what is their domain of influence? 2 In what ways do different power types influence social behaviour and activity? 3 How is interpersonal power shaped and moulded by subjective power and structural power? 4 On what kinds of resources are particular forms of power based? Is power visible, direct and upfront or concealed, indirect and behind the scenes? Is power benign or exploitative? 5 What does it mean to say that particular groups are relatively powerless or powerful? Topic-Questions 1 Are certain individuals ‘natural’ leaders and why? What qualities do they possess? What personal and social resources do they draw upon? 2 How does the balance of power in a relationship affect the quality of intimacy in romantic and sexual partnerships? 3 Does holding a position of power and control at work make it difficult for a person to be friends with co-workers who are subject to their authority? 4 Are lower-class children less likely to succeed in the educational system? 5 Do men have more power than women? 6 Temporality and History (Dimension of Time) The core problem-focus: How does the passage of time influence social behaviour? The elapsing of time has several kinds of effects on social activity depending on which element of social life we focus upon. For example, self-identity is not a fixed ‘essence’; it develops over an individual's lifetime and continues to do so as new experiences imprint themselves on the psyche. Situated social interaction is shaped by the duration of an encounter which, as we have seen, may be brief and one-off (as with strangers on a train or aircraft) or part of chains of encounters (Collins 2005) over successive periods of time (like those with loved ones). Social settings not only have organisational ‘histories’ of their own, but often operate SAGE 2013 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. SAGE Research Methods Page 11 of 17 Developing Questions from Research Problems according to their own defined rhythms of time. Finally, there is the larger sense of the passing of time, the vast sweeps of history which not only mark out specific epochs, but also transitions between types of society (such as that between feudal and capitalist society). All these different senses of time impinge on social life and thus influence it in different ways. Problem-Questions 1 How does the passing of time influence the study of individuals, encounters, settings and contexts? 2 How is social behaviour influenced by different ‘constructions’ of time? Topic-Questions 1 Do individuals base their self-images on past experiences or their aspirations? 2 Does intimacy inevitably erode over time? What roles do familiarity and habituation play in personal relationships? 3 How does a person's status within a group change over time? 4 Have conceptions of romantic love changed in the last two centuries? Do present ideas about romantic love bear any resemblance to earlier ideas? Distinguishing Between Problem- and Topic-Questions This concludes the discussion of the key problem-questions. Hopefully, you will now be able to spot the ‘problem’ and ‘topic’ elements in research questions. You need to feel confident in handling both, and in being able to think about, and organise, your efforts in these terms. As I said earlier, moving in your mind from problem to topic elements (and back again) requires a shift in thought processes – a shift from fairly abstract and general considerations to more concrete and empirical issues, and vice versa. Importantly, you need to be able to do this fairly rapidly and easily in order to extract most benefit. Unless you are very lucky and are naturally gifted in this regard, honing such skills takes a lot of practice, and no little experience. However, careful study of the examples in the previous discussion will help to make you aware of what is required and also, perhaps, inspire you … Resources https://methods-sagepub-com.proxy1.ncu.edu/video/writing-an-effective-research- question?seq=1 https://methods-sagepub-com.proxy1.ncu.edu/video/why-is-coming-up-with-a-research-question-so- difficult?seq=1 https://methods-sagepub-com.proxy1.ncu.edu/video/writing-an-effective-research-question?seq=1 https://methods-sagepub-com.proxy1.ncu.edu/video/writing-an-effective-research-question?seq=1 https://methods-sagepub-com.proxy1.ncu.edu/video/why-is-coming-up-with-a-research-question-so-difficult?seq=1 https://methods-sagepub-com.proxy1.ncu.edu/video/why-is-coming-up-with-a-research-question-so-difficult?seq=1 Research Questions Research questions allow researchers to address the problem and fulfill the purpose of any study. Research questions must be aligned with the problem and purpose of the study both in content and in wording. One way to begin identifying the best research questions for a study is to try posing the topic as a question. For example, if you are interested in determining what influences a team’s productivity because many teams are unproductive, you may have a hypothesis about the connection of productivity to leadership abilities. Your question might be: How does a leader’s personality affect a team’s productivity? Once you have identified a research topic question, you should formulate two or more sub- questions serving as the research questions for your study. For instance, consider the question, “How does a leader’s management style affect employee motivation? Or, “how does a leader’s positivity influence team productivity?” Ask yourself, “How can I measure or answer these questions?” This will help you narrow on an approach to use for data collection. Here is a checklist to use in the development of your research questions: • Did I create several questions closely related to my topic and aligned with my problem and purpose statements? • Are my questions measureable or answerable? • Is the scope of my questions reasonable for the time and resources I have to complete this research? • Will these questions help me better understand some area needing to be changed or improved? • Are my questions phrased in a way avoiding leading language such as: “Since children hate homework, how many minutes of after-school work should be assigned?” • Are my questions worded to avoid the word “why,” as these are very difficult to answer in any study? • Do my questions avoid a “yes” or “no” response, as scholarly research should provide more in-depth results? The tool below can be used to help create research questions. Hypotheses are only required for quantitative methodologies. Research Question Alignment Tool Problem statement – Summarize your problem statement in one sentence. “The problem is . . .” Purpose statement – Summarize your purpose statement in one sentence. “The purpose of this quantitative/ qualitative study is to . . .” Research Question 1 – List the research question. Null Hypothesis 1 – List if applicable. Ho1: Alternative Hypothesis – List if applicable. Ha1: Data – List the data you will need to answer this research question. Variables – List the variables involved in this question, if applicable (include independent, dependent, and extraneous variables). Permission – What kinds of permission will you need to access the data to answer these questions? Research Question 2 – List the research question. Null Hypothesis 2 – List if applicable. Alternative Hypothesis – List if applicable. Ho2: Data – List the data you will need to answer this research question. Ha2: Variables – List the variables involved in this question, if applicable (include independent, dependent, and extraneous variables). Permission – What kinds of permission will you need to access the data to answer this question? For examples, review the dissertation examples previously provided.