Fluent Essays

summary of a chapter in Denhardt and summary of a chapter in Classics of PA.  Approximately single-spaced one page summary per article please.   Need summary of chapter 1 of each book which are attached below. 1 page each of both book (chapter 1) Licensed to: C op yr ig ht 2 01 1 C en ga ge L ea rn in g. A ll R ig ht s R es er ve d. M ay n ot b e co pi ed , s ca nn ed , o r du pl ic at ed , i n w ho le o r in p ar t. D ue t o el ec tr on ic r ig ht s, s om e th ir d pa rt y co nt en t m ay b e su pp re ss ed f ro m t he e B oo k an d/ or e C ha pt er (s ). E di to ri al r ev ie w h as d ee m ed t ha t an y su pp re ss ed c on te nt d oe s no t m at er ia ll y af fe ct t he o ve ra ll l ea rn in g ex pe ri en ce . C en ga ge L ea rn in g re se rv es t he r ig ht t o re m ov e ad di ti on al c on te nt a t an y ti m e if s ub se qu en t ri gh ts r es tr ic ti on s re qu ir e it . This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Licensed to: © 2012, 2007, 2004 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Control Number: 2010939436 ISBN-13: 978-1-111-34274-6 ISBN-10: 1-111-34274-1 Wadsworth 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with offi ce locations around the globe, including Singa- pore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local offi ce at: international.cengage.com/region Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com. Classics of Public Administration, Seventh Edition Jay M. Shafritz, Albert C. Hyde Publisher: Suzanne Jeans Executive Editor: Carolyn Merrill Development Editor: Thomas Finn Assistant Editor: Laura Ross Editorial Assistant: Nina Wasserman Media Editor: Laura Hildebrand Marketing Manager: Lydia LeStar Marketing Coordinator: Josh Hendrick Senior Marketing Communications Manager: Heather Baxley Associate Content Project Manager: Sara Abbott Art Director: Linda Helcher Print Buyer: Fola Orekoya Rights Acquisition Specialist, Image: Amanda Groszko Senior Rights Acquisition Specialist, Text: Katie Huha Production Service/Compositor: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Cover Designer: Lou Ann Thesing Cover Image: Tetra Images/ © Getty Images For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706. For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be emailed to [email protected] Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15 14 13 12 11 C op yr ig ht 2 01 1 C en ga ge L ea rn in g. A ll R ig ht s R es er ve d. M ay n ot b e co pi ed , s ca nn ed , o r du pl ic at ed , i n w ho le o r in p ar t. D ue t o el ec tr on ic r ig ht s, s om e th ir d pa rt y co nt en t m ay b e su pp re ss ed f ro m t he e B oo k an d/ or e C ha pt er (s ). E di to ri al r ev ie w h as d ee m ed t ha t an y su pp re ss ed c on te nt d oe s no t m at er ia ll y af fe ct t he o ve ra ll l ea rn in g ex pe ri en ce . C en ga ge L ea rn in g re se rv es t he r ig ht t o re m ov e ad di ti on al c on te nt a t an y ti m e if s ub se qu en t ri gh ts r es tr ic ti on s re qu ir e it . Licensed to: 2 P a r t O n e EARLY VOICES AND THE FIRST QUARTER CENTURY | 1880s to 1920s | C op yr ig ht 2 01 1 C en ga ge L ea rn in g. A ll R ig ht s R es er ve d. M ay n ot b e co pi ed , s ca nn ed , o r du pl ic at ed , i n w ho le o r in p ar t. D ue t o el ec tr on ic r ig ht s, s om e th ir d pa rt y co nt en t m ay b e su pp re ss ed f ro m t he e B oo k an d/ or e C ha pt er (s ). E di to ri al r ev ie w h as d ee m ed t ha t an y su pp re ss ed c on te nt d oe s no t m at er ia ll y af fe ct t he o ve ra ll l ea rn in g ex pe ri en ce . C en ga ge L ea rn in g re se rv es t he r ig ht t o re m ov e ad di ti on al c on te nt a t an y ti m e if s ub se qu en t ri gh ts r es tr ic ti on s re qu ir e it . Licensed to: 3 W ritings on public administration go back to ancient civilization. 1 The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians left considerable advice on the techniques of management and adminis- tration. So did the civilizations of China, Greece, and Rome. Modern management tech- niques can be traced from Alexander the Great’s use of staff 2 to the assembly-line methods of the arsenal of Venice;3 from the theorizing of Niccolo Machiavelli on the nature of leadership4 to Adam Smith’s advocacy of the division of labor;5 and from Robert Owen’s assertion that “vital machines” (employees) should be given as much attention as “inanimate machines”6 to Charles Babbage’s con- tention that there existed “basic principles of management.”7 The history of the world can be viewed as the rise and fall of public administrative institutions. Those ancient empires that rose and prevailed were those with better administrative institutions than their competitors. Brave soldiers have been plentiful in every society but they were ultimately wasted if not backed up by administrators who can feed and pay them. Marcus Tullius Cicero, the ancient Roman orator, is usually credited with first saying that “the sinews of war are infinite money.” Rome, like Egypt, Persia, and other empires before it, conquered much of the ancient world (well, at least that centered around the Mediterranean) because it had an organizational doctrine that made its soldiers far more effective than competing forces—and because its legions were backed up by a sophisticated administrative system of supply based on regular if not equitable taxes. The Roman Empire only fell when its legions degenerated into corps of mercenaries and when its supply and tax bases were corrupted. Napoleon was wrong. Armies do not “march on their stomachs,” as he said; they march on the proverbial backs of the tax collectors and on the roads built by administrators. Regular pay allows for discipline. Strict discipline is what makes a mob an army. And a disciplined military, obedient to the leaders of the state, is a precondition for civilization. This is the classic chicken and egg problem. Which comes first—effective public administration or an effective military? The rise and fall of ancient Rome proved that you could not have one without the other. Early bureaucrats in ancient Rome and modern Europe literally wore uniforms that paralleled military dress. After all, the household servants of rulers traditionally wore livery. It indicated that the wearer was not free but the servant of another. Government administrators are still considered ser- vants in this sense; they are public servants because they, too, have accepted obligations that mean they are not completely free. Indeed, until early in the twentieth century many otherwise civilian public officials in Europe—most notably diplomats—had prescribed uniforms. Both victorious soldiers and successful managers tend to be inordinately admired and dispropor- tionately rewarded as risk takers. True, the specific risks and rewards are different; but the phenom- enon is the same. They both may have to put their careers, and sometimes significant parts of their anatomy as well, “on the line” to obtain a goal for their state or organization. Notice again the military language for “the line” originally referred to the line of battle where they faced the enemy. This is why line officers today are still those who perform the services for which the organization exists. This is the direct link between the Roman centurion and the fire chief, hospital director, or school principal. Life on the line is still a daily struggle. It is possible to find most of the modern concepts of management and leadership stated by one or another of the writers of the classical, medieval, and pre-modern world. However, our concern is not with this prehistory of modern management but with the academic discipline and occupational specialty that is U.S. public administration. C op yr ig ht 2 01 1 C en ga ge L ea rn in g. A ll R ig ht s R es er ve d. M ay n ot b e co pi ed , s ca nn ed , o r du pl ic at ed , i n w ho le o r in p ar t. D ue t o el ec tr on ic r ig ht s, s om e th ir d pa rt y co nt en t m ay b e su pp re ss ed f ro m t he e B oo k an d/ or e C ha pt er (s ). E di to ri al r ev ie w h as d ee m ed t ha t an y su pp re ss ed c on te nt d oe s no t m at er ia ll y af fe ct t he o ve ra ll l ea rn in g ex pe ri en ce . C en ga ge L ea rn in g re se rv es t he r ig ht t o re m ov e ad di ti on al c on te nt a t an y ti m e if s ub se qu en t ri gh ts r es tr ic ti on s re qu ir e it . Licensed to: 4 Part One | Early Voices and the First Quarter Century | 1880s to 1920s | CIVIL SERVICE REFORM AND MERIT IN GOVERNMENT “Any city in the present state of municipal advancement and progress which has no provision for civil service is as much behind the times as a city without electric lights, telephones or street cars.” —Board of Freeholders, City of Kansas City The American City (1911) American public administration did not invent the concept of a creating a public service that would be based on merit. Would-be reformers of American government in the late nineteenth century not only borrowed from the European experience but also were fond of noting that possessing such systems was an essential step in “enlightenment” for the United States if it was to develop as a civilized nation. The first real steps toward creating a modern state of public administration in the United States were taken following the Civil War and at the heart was the struggle to limit the spoils system of rewarding political party members with government job appointments as opposed to establishing a civil service system where appointments and tenure were based on merit.8 While federal civil service reform is generally dated from the post–Civil War period, the political roots of the reform effort go back much earlier—to the beginning of the republic. Thomas Jefferson was the first president to face the problem of a philosophically hostile bureaucracy. While sorely pressed by his supporters to remove Federalist officeholders and replace them with Republican par- tisans, Jefferson was determined not to remove officials for political reasons alone. He maintained in a letter in 1801 to William Findley that “Malconduct is a just ground of removal, mere difference of political opinion is not.” With occasional defections from this principle, even by Jefferson himself, this policy was the norm rather than the exception down through the administration of Andrew Jackson. President Jackson’s rhetoric on the nature of public service was far more influential than his adminis- trative example. In claiming that all men, especially the newly enfranchised who did so much to elect him, should have an equal opportunity for public office, Jackson played to his plebeian constituency and put the patrician civil service on notice that they had no natural monopoly on public office. The spoils system, used only modestly by Jackson, flourished under his successors. The doctrine of rota- tion of office progressively prevailed over the earlier notion of stability in office. Depending on your point of view, the advent of modern merit systems is either an economic, political, or moral development. Economic historians would maintain that the demands of industrial expansion—a dependable postal service, a viable transportation network, and so on—necessitated a government service based on merit. Political analysts could argue rather persuasively that it was the demands of an expanded suffrage and democratic rhetoric that sought to replace favoritism with merit. Economic and political considerations are so intertwined that it is impossible to say which fac- tor is the true origin of the merit system. The moral impetus behind reform is even more difficult to define. As moral impulses tend to hide economic and political motives, the weight of moral concern undiluted by other considerations is impossible to measure. Nevertheless, the cosmetic effect of moral overtones was of significant aid to the civil service reform movement, because it accentuated the social legitimacy of the reform proposals. With the ever-present impetus of achieving maximum public services for minimum tax dollars, business interests were quite comfortable in supporting civil service reform, one of a variety of strate- gies they used to have power pass from the politicos to themselves. The political parties of the time were almost totally dependent for financing on assessments made on the wages of their members in public office. With the decline of patronage, the parties had to seek new funding sources, and American business was more than willing to assume this new financial burden—and its concomitant influence. Civil service reform was both an ideal—an integral symbol of a larger national effort to establish a new form of more responsive government; and an institutional effort—a series of internal reforms C op yr ig ht 2 01 1 C en ga ge L ea rn in g. A ll R ig ht s R es er ve d. M ay n ot b e co pi ed , s ca nn ed , o r du pl ic at ed , i n w ho le o r in p ar t. D ue t o el ec tr on ic r ig ht s, s om e th ir d pa rt y co nt en t m ay b e su pp re ss ed f ro m t he e B oo k an d/ or e C ha pt er (s ). E di to ri al r ev ie w h as d ee m ed t ha t an y su pp re ss ed c on te nt d oe s no t m at er ia ll y af fe ct t he o ve ra ll l ea rn in g ex pe ri en ce . C en ga ge L ea rn in g re se rv es t he r ig ht t o re m ov e ad di ti on al c on te nt a t an y ti m e if s ub se qu en t ri gh ts r es tr ic ti on s re qu ir e it . Licensed to: Part One | Early Voices and the First Quarter Century | 1880s to 1920s | 5 intent on creating new bureaucratic authority structures. Historians have sought to capture how the “Progressive Era” reflected the interplay between reform movements at the federal level and state and local governments in the context of political and social changes occurring after the Civil War.9 Civil service reform was integral to that vision for change and viewed as embracing, in the words of one of the early reform champions, Dorman Eaton, “certain great principles which embody a theory of politi- cal morality, of official obligation, of equal rights, and common justice in government.”10 Dorman B. Eaton had been appointed chair of the first Civil Service Commission established by President Grant in 1871. When the commission concluded unsuccessfully in 1875, Eaton went to England at the request of President Rutherford Hayes to undertake a study of the British civil service system. His report—published as a book in 1880 with the title Civil Service in Great Britain: A History of Abuses and Reforms and their Bearing upon American Politics—obviously advocated the adoption of the merit system in America. His book enumerated the principles the civil service system would entail, as the listing of brief excerpts illustrate: 1. “Public office creates a relation of trust and duty of a kind which requires all authority and influ- ence pertaining to it to be exercised with the same absolute conformity to moral standards, to the spirit of the constitution and the laws, and to the common interest of the people . . . . 2. In filling offices, it is the right of the people to have the worthiest citizens in the public service for the general welfare, . . . . 3. The personal merits of the candidate—are in themselves the highest claim upon an office . . . . 4. Party government and the salutary activity of parties are not superseded, but they are made purer and more efficient, by the merit system of office which brings larger capacity and higher character to their support” . . . .11 When President Garfield was assassinated in 1881 by an insane and disappointed office-seeker, the movement for civil service reform would finally produce legislative results. Eaton would be prominent in providing the language for the Pendleton Act of 1883, which created a federal civil service system based on merit. Under the act, a civil service commission was established and a class of civil service was created where employees would be hired through open competitive examinations and promoted and retained based on merit. Thus, at the federal level, progress toward implementing reform was gener- ally measured in terms of the percentage of government employees who were in the classified service. While the Pendleton Act did not make civil service mandatory for all federal agencies, coverage under civil service would grow from 10 percent in the 1880s to nearly 70 percent between the world wars.12 However, the relatively rapid categorization of federal positions under civil service was not all that it seemed to be. Frederick Mosher noted in his examination of the public service that the ranks of the civil service were largely concentrated in entry-level employees. Indeed, the requirement that entrance to federal service “be permitted only at the lowest grade” was specifically removed by the Congress cre- ating “an open civil service with no prohibition of what we now call lateral entry.”13 Within two decades of its existence, the Civil Service Commission would be bemoaning the lack of upward mobility and promotions for the talented workers they felt had been selected for employment under civil service, a situation Mosher notes that would not be remedied until the 1940s. Thus it was relatively easy for a federal agency to accept civil service as the new norm because it applied to entry-level hires and did not preclude an agency from appointing—via lateral entry—higher-level employees of their own choosing. Civil service reform was also an important issue for state and local governments. While only three states (Massachusetts in 1883, New York in 1884, and Ohio in 1902) passed legislation that required civil service for municipalities, adoption of civil service reform was widespread. But a distinction about the means of adoption should be made especially where it concerns the importance of requiring civil service procedures by law. Some assessments of the adoption of civil service reform during the first quarter of the twentieth century conclude that the Pendleton Act was a weak statute in that it did not require federal agencies to classify their positions under civil service and did not mention state and local governments. Another interpretation of the fact that only three states enacted statewide legisla- tion on civil service reform would be that it reaffirms the “relative autonomy” that most cities enjoyed from higher governmental authority, be it federal or state.14 C op yr ig ht 2 01 1 C en ga ge L ea rn in g. A ll R ig ht s R es er ve d. M ay n ot b e co pi ed , s ca nn ed , o r du pl ic at ed , i n w ho le o r in p ar t. D ue t o el ec tr on ic r ig ht s, s om e th ir d pa rt y co nt en t m ay b e su pp re ss ed f ro m t he e B oo k an d/ or e C ha pt er (s ). E di to ri al r ev ie w h as d ee m ed t ha t an y su pp re ss ed c on te nt d oe s no t m at er ia ll y af fe ct t he o ve ra ll l ea rn in g ex pe ri en ce . C en ga ge L ea rn in g re se rv es t he r ig ht t o re m ov e ad di ti on al c on te nt a t an y ti m e if s ub se qu en t ri gh ts r es tr ic ti on s re qu ir e it . Licensed to: 6 Part One | Early Voices and the First Quarter Century | 1880s to 1920s | Still, over 200 cities adopted civil service reform by the 1930s, the majority from states that did not have a mandatory state statute. The National Civil Service Reform League, which regularly reported on which states and municipalities had adopted the “competitive system,” noted in their 1911 report six variations for adoption of civil service from charter provisions to popular votes establishing local commissions.15 Thinking back on the premises of civil service reform and the promise of the merit system could not be more instructive, especially now, when some states and local governments have moved away from civil service. In 1996, the State of Georgia passed legislation terminating civil service coverage for new state employees. Other states, notably Florida, South Carolina, Arkansas, Missouri, and North Dakota, have followed suit.16 In a 2006 survey of state reform efforts, 28 of the 50 states were identified as having expanded the numbers of “at-will employees” or public sector workers who are not under the protection of civil service guidelines.17 Public administration has always been in a debate about how to make the public workforce more responsive and productive—only this time it is the bureau- cracy and over-protectionism of the civil service that is the target of reform. CALLING FOR A NEW DISCIPLINE ON RUNNING A GOVERNMENT While Alexander Hamilton,18 Thomas Jefferson,19 Andrew Jackson,20 and other notables of the first century of the republic have dealt with the problem of running the administrative affairs of the state, it was not until 1887 that we find a serious claim made that public administration should be a self- conscious, professional field. This came from Woodrow Wilson’s famous 1887 essay, “The Study of Administration.” Although it attracted slight notice at the time, it has become customary to trace the origins of the academic discipline of public administration to that essay. While Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) would later be president, first of the American Political Science Association, then of Princeton University, and later of the United States, in the mid-1880s he was a struggling young instructor at Bryn Mawr College for Women. During this time he worked on several textbooks now long forgotten; wrote fiction under a pen name (but it was all rejected); and wrote a political essay that remains his most enduring contribution as a political scientist. On November 11, 1886, Wilson wrote to the editor of the Political Science Quarterly to whom he had submitted his article.21 Wilson asserted that he had very modest aims for his work, which he thought of as “a semi-popular introduction to administrative studies.” He even said that he thought his work might be “too slight.” Ironically, one hundred years later, the American Society for Public Administration would launch a Centennial’s Agenda Project to identify the critical issues for the field and cite the publication of Wilson’s essay as “generally regarded as the beginning of public administration as a specific field of study.”22 In “The Study of Administration,” Wilson attempted to refocus political science’s study of govern- ments. Rather than be concerned with the great maxims of lasting political truth, he argued that politi- cal science should concentrate on how governments are administered. This was necessary because, in his words, “It is getting harder to run a constitution than to frame one.” Wilson wanted the study of public administration to focus not only on personnel problems, as many other reformers of the time had advocated, but also on organization and management in gen- eral. The reform movement of the time, which had already secured the passage of the first lasting fed- eral civil service reform legislation, the Pendleton Act of 1883, had a reform agenda that both started and ended with merit appointments. Wilson sought to move the concerns of public administration a step further by investigating the “organization” and “methods of our government offices” with a view toward determining “first, what government can properly and successfully do, and secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or energy.” Wilson was concerned with organizational efficiency and economy—that is, productivity in its most simplistic formulation. C op yr ig ht 2 01 1 C en ga ge L ea rn in g. A ll R ig ht s R es er ve d. M ay n ot b e co pi ed , s ca nn ed , o r du pl ic at ed , i n w ho le o r in p ar t. D ue t o el ec tr on ic r ig ht s, s om e th ir d pa rt y co nt en t m ay b e su pp re ss ed f ro m t he e B oo k an d/ or e C ha pt er (s ). E di to ri al r ev ie w h as d ee m ed t ha t an y su pp re ss ed c on te nt d oe s no t m at er ia ll y af fe ct t he o ve ra ll l ea rn in g ex pe ri en ce . C en ga ge L ea rn in g re se rv es t he r ig ht t o re m ov e ad di ti on al c on te nt a t an y ti m e if s ub se qu en t ri gh ts r es tr ic ti on s re qu ir e it . Licensed to: Part One | Early Voices and the First Quarter Century | 1880s to 1920s | 7 By authoring this essay, Wilson is also credited with positing the existence of a major distinction between politics and administration. This was a common and necessary political tactic of the reform movement because arguments that public appointments should be based on fitness and merit, rather than partisanship, necessarily had to assert that “politics” were out of place in public service. In estab- lishing what became known as the politics-administration dichotomy, Wilson was really referring to “partisan” politics. While his subtlety was lost on many, Wilson’s main themes—that public adminis- tration should be premised on a science of management and separate from traditional politics—fell on fertile intellectual ground. The ideas of this then-obscure professor eventually became the dogma of the discipline and remained so until after World War II. While the politics-administration dichotomy would be later discredited, his ideas are still highly influential and essential to an understanding of the evolution of public administration.23 THE CASE FOR A POLITICS-ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY A more carefully argued examination of the politics-administration dichotomy was offered by Frank J. Goodnow (1859–1939) in his book, Politics and Administration, published in 1900. Goodnow, one of the founders and first president (in 1903) of the American Political Science Association, was one of the most significant voices and writers of the progressive reform move- ment.24 To Goodnow, modern administration presented a number of dilemmas involving political and administrative functions that had now supplanted the traditional concern with the separation of powers among the various branches of government. Politics and administration could be distinguished, he argued, as “the expression of the will of the state and the execution of that will.” Reprinted here is Goodnow’s original analysis of the distinction between politics and adminis- tration. Note how even Goodnow had to admit that when the function of political decision making and administration was legally separated, there developed a “tendency for the necessary control to develop extra-legally through the political party system.” The articulation … 39214_fm_rev04.indd 4 12/11/12 2:28 PM Public Administration An Action Orientation Seventh Edition R O B E R T B . D E N H A R D T University of Southern California J A N E T V. D E N H A R D T University of Southern California TA R A A . B l A N c Arizona State University Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States 39214_fm_rev04.indd 1 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 39214_fm_rev04.indd 4 12/11/12 2:28 PM This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. © 2014, 2009, 2006, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Control Number: 2012943892 ISBN-13: 978-1-133-93921-4 ISBN-10: 1-133-93921-X Wadsworth 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil and Japan. Locate your local office at international.cengage.com/region. Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com. Instructors: Please visit login.cengage.com and log in to access instructor-specific resources. Public Administration: An Action Orientation, Seventh Edition Robert B. Denhardt, Janet V. Denhardt, and Tara A. Blanc Publisher: Suzanne Jeans Executive Editor: Carolyn Merrill Acquiring Sponsoring Editor: Anita Devine Development Editor: Michael B. Kopf, S4Carlisle Publishing Services Assistant Editor: Patrick Roach Media Editor: Laura Hildebrand Brand Manager: Lydia LeStar Marketing Development Manager: Kyle Zimmerman Rights Acquisitions Specialist: Jennifer Meyer Dare Art and Design Direction, Production Management, and Composition: Cenveo Publisher Services Manufacturing Planner: Fola Orekoya Cover Image: Rachelle Antoinette Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 15 14 13 12 For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be emailed to [email protected] 39214_fm_rev04.indd 2 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For all our children 39214_fm_rev04.indd 3 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 39214_fm_rev04.indd 4 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. v cONTENTS PREFACE xiv ACknowlEdgmEntS xvii About thE AuthoRS xviii ChAPtER 1 PERSonAl ACtIon In PublIC oRgAnIZAtIonS 1 What Is Public Administration? 2 Values of Democracy 3 Contrasting Business and Public Administration 5 Ambiguity 6 Pluralistic Decision Making 6 Visibility 7 Thinking about Public Administration Today 7 Publicness 8 The Global Context 9 What Do Public Administrators Do? 10 An Inventory of Public Management Skills 11 Voices of Public Administrators 13 Why Study Public Administration? 14 Preparing for Administrative Positions 16 Combining Technical and Managerial Training 17 Interaction of Business and Government 18 Influencing Public Organizations 19 Making Things Happen 20 Issues in Public Administration Theory and Practice 22 Politics and Administration 22 Ensuring Accountability 23 Bureaucracy and Democracy 24 Efficiency versus Responsiveness 25 Summary and Action Implications 26 Study Questions 26 Cases and Exercises 27 For Additional Reading 30 Appendix: Office of Personnel Management List of Core Executive Qualifications 31 ChAPtER 2 thE PolItICAl ContEXt oF PublIC AdmInIStRAtIon 35 Administrative Organizations and Executive Leadership 36 Administrative Organizations 39 39214_fm_rev04.indd 5 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. v i Contents The Executive Office of the President 39 Cabinet-Level Executive Departments 40 Independent Agencies, Regulatory Commissions, and Public Corporations 41 Agencies Supporting the Legislature and the Judiciary 41 The State Level 42 The Local Level 44 Cities 44 Counties 46 Native American Tribes 46 Special Purpose Governments 47 Nonprofit Organizations and Associations 48 Relationships with the Legislative Body 49 The Policy Process 50 Agenda Setting 50 Policy Formulation 52 Policy Legitimation 53 Policy Implementation 54 Policy Evaluation and Change 55 Types of Policy 55 Regulatory Policy 55 Distributive Policy 57 Redistributive Policy 57 Constituent Policy 58 Sources of Bureaucratic Power 59 Legislative Supervision: Structural Controls 61 Legislative Veto 62 Sunset Laws 63 Sunshine Laws 63 Agency Conduct 64 Legislative Supervision: Oversight 65 Legislative Supervision: Casework 66 Relationships with the Judiciary 67 Quasi-Legislative Action 67 Quasi-Judicial Action 69 Agency Discretion 69 Judicial Review 70 Concerns for Due Process 71 The Courts and Agency Administration 72 Summary and Action Implications 74 Study Questions 75 Cases and Exercises 76 For Additional Reading 77 39214_fm_rev04.indd 6 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Contents v i i ChAPtER 3 thE IntERoRgAnIZAtIonAl ContEXt oF PublIC AdmInIStRAtIon 79 The Development of Intergovernmental Relations 82 Dual Federalism 84 Cooperative Federalism 85 Picket-Fence Federalism 86 The Reagan and First Bush Years 89 The Clinton Presidency 90 The Bush Administration 91 Obama and Federalism 94 Judicial Influence 96 The State and Local Perspective 98 Funding Patterns 98 Preemptions and Mandates 99 Preemptions 99 Mandates 102 Subnational Relationships 104 State to State 104 State to Local 105 Local to Local 107 Working with Nongovernmental Organizations 108 Privatization and Contracting 109 The Management of Nonprofit Organizations 114 Operational Leadership 114 Resource Development 115 Financial Management 116 Board Governance 117 Board-Staff Relations 118 Advocacy 119 Summary and Action Implications 119 Study Questions 120 Cases and Exercises 121 For Additional Reading 122 ChAPtER 4 PlAnnIng, ImPlEmEntAtIon, And EVAluAtIon 123 Planning 124 Strategic Planning 125 Planning for Planning 125 Organizing for Planning 127 Steps in Planning 127 Statement of Mission or Objectives 128 Environmental Analysis 128 Assessment of Strengths and Weaknesses 128 39214_fm_rev04.indd 7 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. v i i i Contents Analysis of Organizational Leaders’ Values 129 Development of Alternative Strategies 129 The Logic of Policy Analysis 129 Steps in Policy Analysis 130 Defining the Problem 130 Setting Objectives and Criteria 131 Developing Alternatives 132 Analyzing Various Policies 132 Ranking and Choosing 133 Costs and Benefits 133 Other Quantitative Techniques 134 Implementation 138 Organizational Design 139 Systems Analysis 141 Reengineering 143 Evaluation 144 Program Evaluation 145 Evaluation Designs and Techniques 146 Qualitative Techniques 147 Quantitative Techniques 148 Summary and Action Implications 149 Study Questions 150 Cases and Exercises 150 For Additional Reading 152 ChAPtER 5 budgEtIng And FInAnCIAl mAnAgEmEnt 155 The Budget as an Instrument of Fiscal Policy 156 The Budget as an Instrument of Public Policy 157 Where the Money Comes From 158 Individual Income Tax 159 Corporation Income Tax 159 Payroll Taxes 160 Sales and Excise Taxes 160 Property Taxes 160 Other Revenue Sources 161 Where the Money Goes 161 From Deficits to Surplus and Back 163 The Bush Tax Plan 165 Obama and Economic Recovery 166 State and Local Expenditures 167 The Budget as a Managerial Tool 169 Budget Formulation 169 39214_fm_rev04.indd 8 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Contents i x Budget Approval 172 Budget Execution 174 Audit Phase 176 Approaches to Public Budgeting 176 The Line-Item Budget 177 The Performance Budget 178 Program Budgeting 179 Outcome-Based Budgeting 181 Budgetary Strategies and Political Games 181 Strategies for Program Development 182 Aspects of Financial Management 184 Capital Budgeting 184 Debt Management 186 Risk Management 187 Purchasing 187 Accounting and Related Information Systems 188 Government Accounting 188 Computer-Based Information Systems 190 Summary and Action Implications 191 Study Questions 192 Cases and Exercises 193 For Additional Reading 200 ChAPtER 6 thE mAnAgEmEnt oF humAn RESouRCES 203 Merit Systems in Public Employment 204 Spoils versus Merit 204 The Civil Service Reform Act and Its Aftermath 208 Reinvention and the National Performance Review 210 State and Local Personnel Systems 212 Hiring, Firing, and Things in Between 213 Classification Systems 213 The Recruitment Process 214 Pay Systems 217 Conditions of Employment and Related Matters 218 Sexual Harassment 219 AIDS Policy 220 Workplace Violence 221 Removing Employees 221 Personnel Reform Efforts 222 The Changing Character of Labor-Management Relations 224 Steps in the Bargaining Process 227 39214_fm_rev04.indd 9 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. x Contents To Strike or Not to Strike 229 Unions Redefined 230 Correcting Patterns of Discrimination in Public Employment 232 Americans with Disabilities Act 233 Questions of Compliance 234 Affirmative Action and Reverse Discrimination 236 The Glass Ceiling 238 Relations between Political Appointees and Career Executives 239 Summary and Action Implications 241 Study Questions 242 Cases and Exercises 243 For Additional Reading 246 ChAPtER 7 thE EthICS oF PublIC SERVICE 249 Approaches to Ethical Deliberation 249 Reasoning, Development, and Action 251 Moral Philosophy 252 Moral Psychology 253 Moral Action 255 Postmodern Ethics 257 Issues of Administrative Responsibility 259 The Limits of Administrative Discretion 260 Avenues for Public Participation 263 Transparency in Government 265 The Ethics of Privatization 266 Ethical Problems for the Individual 267 Interacting with Elected Officials 267 Following Orders 268 Conflicts of Interest 270 Whistle-Blowing 273 Prohibitions on Political Activities 275 Managing Ethics 277 Establishing an Ethical Climate 278 Summary and Action Implications 280 Study Questions 281 Cases and Exercises 281 For Additional Reading 284 Appendix: Code of Ethics of the American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) 285 39214_fm_rev04.indd 10 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Contents x i ChAPtER 8 dESIgnIng And mAnAgIng oRgAnIZAtIonS 289 The Organizational Context 289 Images of Organizing in the Public and Nonprofit Sectors 291 The Functions of Management 292 The Early Writers: A Concern for Structure 294 Recognizing Human Behavior 298 Two Classic Works 300 The Organization and Its Environment 302 Systems Theory 302 From Political Economy to Organization Development 304 Decision Making in Organizations 305 Organizational Culture, Organizational Learning, and  Strategic Management 307 Guidelines for Public Management 313 Postmodern Narratives on Management 315 Postmodernism 315 Issues of Gender and Power 316 Summary and Action Implications 317 Study Questions 318 Cases and Exercises 318 For Additional Reading 319 ChAPtER 9 lEAdERShIP And mAnAgEmEnt SkIllS In PublIC oRgAnIZAtIonS 323 Leadership and Power 324 Communication 331 Listening 331 Have a Reason or Purpose 332 Suspend Judgment Initially 332 Resist Distractions 332 Wait before Responding 333 Rephrase What You Listen To in Your Own Words 333 Seek the Important Themes 333 Use the Thinking-Speaking Differential to Reflect and Find Meaning 334 Speaking 334 Writing 335 Delegation and Motivation 336 Delegation 336 Motivation 337 Pay and Job Satisfaction 337 Reinforcement Theory 338 Goal Setting 340 39214_fm_rev04.indd 11 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. x i i Contents Individual Decision Making 342 Group Dynamics 345 Advantages of Group Decision Making 345 Disadvantages of Group Decision Making 346 Interpersonal Dynamics in Groups 348 Specialized Techniques for Group Decision Making 349 Conflict, Bargaining, and Negotiation 350 Summary and Action Implications 352 Study Questions 353 Cases and Exercises 354 For Additional Reading 357 Appendix: “Lost on the Moon” Exercise: Answers from NASA Experts 358 ChAPtER 10 AdmInIStRAtIVE REFoRm, PRoduCtIVItY, And PERFoRmAnCE 361 New Public Management, Reinvention, the Management Agenda, and Nonprofit Reform 363 The New Public Management 363 Reinventing Government 364 The Management Agenda 365 Nonprofit Management Reform 366 The Results of NPM and Reinvention 368 Information and Communication Technologies 369 Technology and Management Reform 370 E-Government and E-Governance 371 Performance Measurement 374 Implementation Issues in Quality and Productivity 384 Steps to Productivity Improvement 385 Summary and Action Implications 388 Study Questions 389 Cases and Exercises 390 For Additional Reading 391 ChAPtER 11 oPPoRtunItIES FoR thE FutuRE: globAlIZAtIon, dEmoCRACY, And thE nEw PublIC SERVICE 393 The Importance of Public Service 393 Trends in Public Service 394 Economic Changes and Redefining Government 394 Globalization 397 The Role of Citizens in the Governance Process 398 39214_fm_rev04.indd 12 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Contents x i i i Ethics and the Imperatives of Good Governance 402 A Final Note 404 Study Questions 405 Cases and Exercises 405 For Additional Reading 406 glossar y 407 References 415 Index 431 39214_fm_rev04.indd 13 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. PREFAcE The seventh edition of Public Administration: An Action Orientation updates the text by taking it through President Obama’s first term and into his second term, follow- ing a very close election. It discusses the implications of the recent economic crisis, explores the resulting budget deficits at all levels of government as well as the increase in the national debt, considers the possible ramifications of the Obama health care reform effort, and covers recent political moves to limit collective bargaining for public employees. Most notably, the book has been revised to more completely examine performance in government, on the one hand, and efforts to engage citizens in the work of public and nonprofit organizations, on the other hand. Placed in the context of the history of reform in the field, we now have extended our discussion of management reforms such as the New Public Management, updated material on advances in information and com- munication technology, and given more emphasis to performance management systems. In addition, we have included important new material dealing with leadership, organi- zational theory, and bureaucracy; expanded the discussion of special purpose govern- ments, including school districts; and given a closer look at the increasingly important connection between public administration and civic action or citizenship. We particu- larly emphasize new efforts to promote transparency, collaboration, and participation in public and nonprofit organizations, with much of this discussion centering on the New Public Service. We have once again reordered the chapters to create a more logical progression of material given the large number of revisions since the organization of the previous edition. Additionally, new vignettes asking “What Would You Do?” give students the opportunity to think about and discuss their responses to specific and real- istic challenges in public service. Finally, we have inserted in each chapter a reference to CourseReader. CourseReader for Public Administration: An Action Orientation ISBN-13: 9781133939214 (Public Administration: An Action Orientation with Printed Access Card for CourseReader) CourseReader 0-30 PAC ISBN-13: 9781133350385 (Printed Access Card) CourseReader 0-30 IAC ISBN-13: 9781133350378 (Instant Access Code) In addition to reviewing important public administration issues, we have selected cer- tain readings that highlight the focus of each chapter. Assigning readings can often be a difficult process. Within each chapter, you will come across reading assignments that are easily accessible within the Cengage Learning CourseReader. We have designed the CourseReader selections to tie in seamlessly with the section material. Keeping in mind that we must make the most of the time today’s busy students can allocate to extra reading, we’ve handpicked one selection per chapter that will add the most to their study, reinforce the concepts from the text, and help them apply what they’ve learned to events around them. You may assign the questions that accompany the readings as graded or completion- based homework or use them to spark in-class discussion. x i v 39214_fm_rev04.indd 14 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Preface x v CourseReader is an easy-to-use and affordable option to create an online collection of readings for your course, and this is the first and only introductory book to political sci- ence offering a customizable e-reader. You may assign the readings we’ve recommended for each chapter without any additional setup, or you can choose to create and customize a reader specifically for your class from the thousands of text documents and media clips within CourseReader. You can also ● add your own notes and highlight sections within a reading. ● edit the introductions to the readings. ● assign due dates using the pop-up calendar. ● easily organize your selections using the drag-and-drop feature. You can view a demo of CourseReader at www.cengage.com/coursereader. Companion Website for Public Administration: An Action Orientation ISBN 13: 9781133938712 Students will find open access to tutorial quizzes for every chapter, while instructors have access to the Instructor’s Manual for Public Administration: An Action Orientation. Instructor’s Manual for Public Administration: An Action Orientation online ISBN 13: 9781133949145 The Instructor’s Manual includes an introduction on teaching public administration, ideas on preparing and designing a syllabus, a section on using supplementary textbooks, an overview and test bank including multiple-choice, true/false, and essay questions for each chapter, and a section on ideas for class activities. Like previous editions, the seventh edition contains subtle but telling differences from other books in the field. We assume that students in an introductory course in public administration don’t want to learn about the profession only in the abstract, but are inter- ested in influencing the operations of public agencies, as managers from the inside or as citizens from the outside. They want to acquire the skills necessary for changing things for the better. For this reason, it is important that the text not only introduce students to the schol- arly literature of public administration, but also that it helps them develop the insights and abilities that will make them more effective and responsible actors. This book con- tains a good deal of material that is basic to working in or with public organizations. At the same time, the discussion attends to the complex and often confounding values that distinguish work in the public sector. Most significant, however, is the focus on personal values and interpersonal skills that are crucial to effecting change in public organizations. Another feature of the book is its balanced attention to the work of managers at all levels of government and in nonprofit organizations. Although the federal government is a powerful model for the study of public administration, managers of state and local agen- cies are important actors in the governmental process, and their work is acknowledged and examined as well. Similarly, we show how managers of associations, nonprofit and “third- sector” organizations, and even traditionally private organizations are now confronting 39214_fm_rev04.indd 15 12/11/12 2:28 PM Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. x v i Preface the same issues faced by administrators in the public sector. In fact, we frequently use the term public organizations to describe all such groups involved in the management of pub- lic programs. This edition also gives proper attention to the global dimensions of public administra- tion today. No longer is administrators’ work confined to their own organizations or even to their own jurisdictions. The complexity of modern life means, among other things, that administrators must be attentive to developments around the world as well as to those at home. Decisions made in a foreign capital may affect the work of a public administrator even more significantly than those made only miles away. Today, knowledge of interna- tional affairs and comparative issues is important not only to those who work in other countries but also to all who work in public administration. Public Administration: An Action Orientation remains distinctive in its treatment of the ethics of public service. The topic of ethics is thoroughly covered in a separate chap- ter, and references to ethical concerns appear throughout the text. Ethical issues cannot be separated from action. Indeed, every act of every public servant, at whatever level of government or in any related organization, has an important ethical dimension. For this reason, we have made a strong effort to discuss the ethical considerations that are a part of all administrative activities. Finally, Public …