Fluent Essays

Instructions: Answer the following questions below: How do public health policies and interventions affect your daily life?  Use examples. What are some examples of primary prevention, secondary prevention, and tertiary prevention for specific disease conditions?   When would each type of prevention be appropriate? rubric: be typed in WORD, double spaced. be three (3) or more pages. include a Title page and a Reference page. use one reference besides the textbook that is 5 years or newer (2013-2018).  follow APA format according to the APA Style Guide See NUR4667 - Library APA Citation Style web page for additional information. use factual information from the textbook and/or appropriate articles and websites. be original work, and will be checked for plagiarism. Use attached PDF files from book as source Chapter 1 Global Health Transitions Defining Global Health 1.1 Defining Health • The Constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” • A diversity of medical, behavioral, social, economic, environmental, and other interventions can help people make progress toward long, healthy life trajectories. Figure 1-1 Examples of health trajectories. Defining Global Health • Global health refers to the collaborative actions taken to identify and address transnational concerns about the exposures and diseases that adversely affect human populations. • There are many different lenses that are used to identify global health issues. Figure 1-2 PACES: defining global health. Figure 1-3 PACES: examples of global health priorities. Health Interventions 1.2 Causes of Disease • Etiology is the study of the social and behavioral, environmental, biological, and other causes of disease. • A person’s health status at a given age is a function of his or her experiences across the life course. Medicine and Public Health • Medicine focuses on preventing, diagnosing, and treating health problems in individuals and families. • Public health focuses on promoting health and preventing illnesses, injuries, and early deaths at the population level by identifying and mitigating environmental hazards, promoting healthy behaviors, ensuring access to essential health services, and taking other actions to protect the health, safety, and wellbeing of groups of people. • The lines between medicine and public health are blurry. Figure 1-4 Essential public health services Reproduced from The public health system & the 10 essential public health services. Centers for D isease Control and Prevention w ebsite https://w w w .cdc.gov/stltpublichealth/publichealthservices/essentialhealthservices.htm l. U pdated Septem ber 20, 2017. Figure 1-5 Comparing medicine and public health. Interventions • An intervention is a strategic action intended to improve individual and population health status. • Interventions targeted at any level, from the individual to the community, the nation, and the world, can be effective at improving personal and public health. Figure 1-6 Examples of interventions that improve health trajectories across the life span. Prevention Science 1.3 Prevention • “Prevention is better than a cure.” • Prevention science is the study of which preventive health interventions are effective in various populations, how successful the interventions are, and how well they can be scaled up for widespread implementation. • There are three levels of prevention: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Figure 1-7 Maintaining good health status through preventive interventions is less costly than paying for rehabilitation after health crises. Figure 1-8 Three levels of prevention: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Health Transitions 1.4 Health Transitions • A health transition is a shift in the health status of a population that usually occurs in conjunction with socioeconomic development. • Because some countries have gone through these health transitions and other countries have not, there are now significant differences in health status in the highest-income and lowest- income countries. Figure 1-9 Examples of health transitions. Figure 1-10 There are significant differences in health status and access to the tools for health in low-income and high-income countries. World Regions and Featured Countries 1.5 Featured Countries • Data from eight large countries will be used to represent the diversity of the world’s health profiles. Figure 1-11 The eight featured countries represent nearly half of the world’s population. D ata from W orld developm ent indicators 2016. W ashington: W orld Bank; 2016. Figure 1-12 Eight featured countries by income group. (The countries are listed in order from highest to lowest human development index.) D ata from W orld developm ent indicators 2016. W ashington: W orld Bank; 2016; and H um an developm ent report 2016. N ew York: U N D P; 2016. Figure 1-13 Most of the world’s people live in a country classified as middle income by the World Bank. D ata from W orld developm ent indicators 2016. W ashington: W orld Bank; 2016. Figure 1-14 The eight featured countries represent nearly half of the world’s population. D ata from W orld developm ent indicators 2016. W ashington: W orld Bank; 2016. Figure 1-15 Eight featured countries by geographic location. D ata from W orld developm ent indicators 2016. W ashington: W orld Bank; 2016; and W orld health statistics 2016: M onitoring health for the SD G s. G eneva: W H O ; 2016. Figure 1-16 Income level terminology. Figure 1-17 Examples of socioeconomic and health trends. D ata from H um an developm ent report 2016. N ew York: U N D P; 2016. Global Health Security 1.6 Security • Global health security seeks to protect populations from threats to health and safety by engaging a diversity of stakeholders, including governmental and military personnel, in public health interventions. • Communities and countries suffering from widespread health problems are more likely to have political and economic instability, and poverty and unrest can further exacerbate public health problems that might spill over into other parts of the world. • International and global health initiatives can help to break this cycle, facilitating peace and productivity. Globalization and Health: Shared Futures 1.7 Globalization • Globalization is the process of countries around the world becoming more integrated and interdependent across economic, political, cultural, and other domains. • Global health offers a proactive way to prevent outbreaks (and to respond to them when they happen), to protect economic and political interests at home and abroad, to promote goodwill and humanitarian values, and to achieve shared health goals. Shared Futures • The health patterns that exist today are not the same as the patterns from 100 years ago, and new health transitions will occur in the coming decades. • Global health provides an opportunity to use prevention strategies and other interventions to shape a healthier, safer future for the world’s people. Chapter 1 Defining Global Health Defining Health Figure 1-1 Defining Global Health Figure 1-2 Figure 1-3 Health Interventions Causes of Disease Medicine and Public Health Figure 1-4 Figure 1-5 Interventions Figure 1-6 Prevention Science Prevention Figure 1-7 Figure 1-8 Health Transitions Health Transitions Figure 1-9 Figure 1-10 World Regions and Featured Countries Featured Countries Figure 1-11 Figure 1-12 Figure 1-13 Figure 1-14 Figure 1-15 Figure 1-16 Figure 1-17 Global Health Security Security Globalization and Health: Shared Futures Globalization Shared Futures Chapter 2 Global Health Priorities Global Health Achievements 2.1 Global Health Achievements • Innovations in health technology over the past century have created an incredible set of tools for global health work. • The uneven distribution of access to them has generated a massive intensification of health disparities. • Advocates for various health problems and solutions must compete for attention and support. Figure 2-1 The U.S. CDC’s top 10 public health achievements of the 20th century (1900–1999). Reproduced from Ten great public health achievem ents: U nited States, 1990–1999. M M W R M orb M ort W kly Rev 1999;48:241–3. Figure 2-2 The U.S. CDC’s top 10 global health achievements in the first decade of the 21st century (2001–2010). D ata from CD C, Ten great public health achievem ents: W orldw ide, 2001– 2010. M M W R M orb M ort W kly Rev 2011; 60:814-8. Prioritization Strategies 2.2 Prioritization Strategies • The priorities identified by groups viewing global health with different lenses provide insight into the common health challenges of populations around the world and point toward solutions for shared concerns. Figure 2-3 PACES: strategies for prioritizing global health issues. Disease Burden • The term burden of disease (BOD) refers to the adverse impact of a particular health condition (or group of conditions) on a population. • Disease burden can be measured with health metrics and economic indicators. Best Buys • Low-cost primary prevention activities are usually the most cost- effective interventions. Figure 2-4 Ten “best buys” in global health from the Disease Control Priorities Project. Reproduced from Pathw ays to global health research: strategic plan 2008–2012. Bethesda M D : The John E. Fogarty International Center, N ational Institutes of H ealth (N IH ); 2008, p. 22. Expertise • When funding and implementation agencies have particular areas of expertise, they can maximize their impact by applying their existing knowledge and experience toward new projects that build on past successes. Figure 2-5 Grand Challenges in Global Health. D ata from V arm us H , Klausner R, Zerhouni E, A charya T, D aar A S, Singer PA . G rand challenges in global health. Science 2003; 302:398-9. Other Prioritization Strategies • Groups focused on equity prioritize projects that will address perceived injustices and reduce health disparities. • Groups focused on global health security prioritize direct threats to peace and stability as well as other national interest of sponsoring governments. Figure 2-6 The U.S. CDC’s top public health challenges for the early 21st century. D ata from Koplan JP, Flem ing D W . Current and future public health challenges. JA M A 2000; 284:1696-8. Health Metrics 2.3 Health Metrics • Health metrics provide an evidence base for making policy and funding decisions. Vital Statistics • Vital statistics are population-level metrics about births, deaths, and other life events. • The birth rate is the annual number of births per 1000 people in the total population. • The death rate, also called the mortality rate, is the annual number of deaths per 1000 people (or other units, such as per 100,000 people). Figure 2-7 Birth rate per 1000 people in 2015 in featured countries. D ata from W orld developm ent indicators 2016. W ashington: W orld Bank; 2016. Figure 2-8 Crude and age-standardized all-cause mortality rates per 100,000 people in 2015 in featured countries. D ata from G BD M ortality and Causes of D eath Collaborators. G lobal, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause m ortality, and cause- specific m ortality for 249 causes of death, 1980–2015: a system atic analysis for the G lobal Burden of D isease Study 2015. Lancet 2016; 388:1459-544. Life Expectancy • Life expectancy at birth is the median expected age at death of all babies born alive. • Healthy life expectancy (HALE) is the number of years the average individual born into the population can expect to live without disability. Figure 2-9 Life expectancy at birth (2015). D ata from W orld developm ent indicators 2016. W ashington: W orld Bank; 2016. Figure 2-10 Life expectancy has increased over time. D ata from U nited N ations D epartm ent of Econom ic and Social A ffairs. W orld population prospects: the 2017 revision. N ew York: U N ; 2017. Figure 2-11 Life expectancy and healthy life expectancy (HALE) at birth. D ata from G BD 2015 D A LYs and H A LE Collaborators. G lobal, regional, and national disability-adjusted life years (D A LYs) for 315 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (H A LE), 1990–2015: A system atic analysis for the G lobal Burden of D isease Study 2015. Lancet 2016; 388:1603-58. Morbidity • Morbidity = the presence of illness or disease, whether that disease is relatively mild, like the common cold, or quite severe. • Mortality = death. Morbidity (cont’d) • Incidence is the number of new cases of the disease occurring in a time period divided by the total number of people at risk for that disease in that time period. • Prevalence is the number of total existing cases, whether newly-diagnosed or long- established, divided by the total number of people in the population at the time the prevalence is measured. Figure 2-12 An example of incidence and prevalence YLLs + YLDs = DALYs • Years of life lost (YLLs) = the burden from premature mortality in a population. • Years lived with disability (YLDs) = the burden to a population from nonfatal health conditions that cause significant short- or long-term reduction in health status. • Disability-adjusted life year (DALY) = the total burden of disease in a population from both premature deaths and disability. Figure 2-13 Examples of years lived with disability (YLDs) and years of life lost (YLLs) to premature mortality for different health trajectories. Figure 2-14 The global distribution of YLLs, YLDs, and DALYs in 2015. D ata from G BD 2015 D isease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators. G lobal, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived w ith disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990–2015: A system atic analysis for the G lobal Burden of D isease Study 2015. Lancet 2016; 388:1545-602. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 2.4 MDGs • The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) spelled out eight major goals for significantly reducing global poverty by 2015. • While the MDGs were about general socioeconomic development, the MDGs facilitated remarkable improvements in health status. • The success of the MDGs successes were the impetus to create a follow-up set of goals called the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Figure 2-15 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (2000–2015). Reproduced from U nited N ations. U nited N ations m illennium developm ent goals. http://w w w .un.org/m illennium goals/. Reproduced w ith perm ission from U N D P Brazil. Figure 2-16 Transitioning from the MDGs to the SDGs. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2.5 SDGs • The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are 17 goals established by the member countries of the United Nations at the end of 2015 that aim by 2030 to end poverty, protect the planet, and promote prosperity and peace. • 17 SDGs are operationalized through 169 targets and 230 indicators. Figure 2-17 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (2016–2030). Reproduced from U nited N ations. Transform ing our w orld: The 2030 agenda for sustainable developm ent. N ew York: U N ; 2015, p. 14. SDGs (cont’d) • Like the MDGs, the SDGs consider health to be both a necessary prerequisite to and an outcome of economic growth. • Unlike the MDGs, the SDGs are not singularly focused on the world’s poorest billion people; instead, the SDGs mix goals for poverty reduction with a lengthy list of other targets that apply to countries across the economic spectrum. • Although there is only one SDG focused specifically on health, SDG 3 includes a much greater diversity of targets and indicators than were encompassed by the three health MDGs. Figure 2-18 Examples of Sustainable Development Goals targets related to health. D ata from W orld health statistics 2016: m onitoring health for the SD G s. G eneva: W H O ; 2016. Chapter 2 Global Health Achievements Global Health Achievements Figure 2-1 Figure 2-2 Prioritization Strategies Prioritization Strategies Figure 2-3 Disease Burden Best Buys Figure 2-4 Expertise Figure 2-5 Other Prioritization Strategies Figure 2-6 Health Metrics Health Metrics Vital Statistics Figure 2-7 Figure 2-8 Life Expectancy Figure 2-9 Figure 2-10 Figure 2-11 Morbidity Morbidity (cont’d) Figure 2-12 YLLs + YLDs = DALYs Figure 2-13 Figure 2-14 The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) MDGs Figure 2-15 Figure 2-16 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) SDGs Figure 2-17 SDGs (cont’d) Figure 2-18